Land Capability Classification Research Articles

Land Use Planning by Using GIS Techniques for Land Resource Inventory (LRI)- Northern Dry Zone of Karnataka, India

A study was conducted to determine land capability and to develop suitability map based on soil characteristics and climatic factors of watershed area. Detailed soil survey was carried out for Donur-2 micro watershed which comes under Basavana Bagewadi taluka of Vijayapura district, Karnataka to acquire the comprehensive data related land resources. From the study area, it was observed that based on soil-site characteristics four soil series were identified such as Dadamatti, Karjol, Nidoni and Rampur series and mapped into eight mapping units using GIS techniques. Donur-2 watershed area has been grouped into three land capability classes (LCC) viz., II, III and IV with four subclasses IIes, IIIs, IIIse and IVe. Subclass ‘e’ is due to major limitation of soil property group ‘e’ i.e erosion and slope, subclass ‘s’ is due to major limitations group ‘s’ having parameters like texture, depth and gravelliness. Subclass ‘se’ and ‘es’ are due to limitations of both soil parameters group above mentioned, however se and es are different classes which are based major limitation one of the group and followed by other group. Land capability map was developed using GIS techniques which indicates that out of 324.3 ha study area, LCC class IIIs covering major area i.e. 179 ha (55.12%), followed by class IIs i.e. 109 ha (33.51%), class IVe i.e. 23 ha (7.15%) and minor area of 7 ha (2.15%) area is covered by class IIIse. Soil suitability assessment indicates that majority of land is moderately suitable for agriculture. Class III soils are designated as moderately fertile agricultural land with significant constraints. However, with special conservation practices soils under class III can be used for cultivation of different crops. Class IV soils are categorized as reasonably fertile for intermittent cultivation, characterized by significant restrictions that limit crop options but with careful management practices these can be used for cultivation of arable crops. Therefore, the utilization of a land use planning approach (LUP) is instrumental in formulating tailored land resource management strategies to enhance land productivity, mitigate land degradation and attain sustainability goals.

Participant approach model in a basin: A case study from Turkey

Abstract The Beyşehir Lake Basin, which is the study area, is the second largest sub-basin within the Konya province, located southwest of the Konya Closed Basin in terms of surface by 7,308 km2. Some basin characteristics such as slope, elevation classes, land use, aspect groups, land capability class, erosion status were examined by a Geographic Information System. The aims of the study were to determine the problems and the requests and suggestions of the people living in the basin, and to reveal the needs and deficiencies. For these purposes, the current and potential situation of the basin was evaluated using a holistic evaluation approach, which represents the most important of the watershed management principles, and the solutions were concluded in the light of the findings of the study. Migration, inadequacy of agricultural activities, lack of pasture areas for livestock activities, lack and neglect of irrigation water and irrigation infrastructure, lack of basic infrastructure such as village roads, and soil losses due to lack of erosion structures were the most obvious problems of the basin based on the results of the Ask–Find–Resolve analyses.

Geospatial Land Evaluation of Medinapur Sub-watershed for Crop Suitability and Sustainable Crop Plan

A study was conducted to reveal the land capability and its suitability to crops in the semi-arid region of North-Eastern Karnataka state, India. Alternate crop plan was proposed with suitable interventions at soil phase level, based on the prevailing climatic regimes and soil-land limitations. Cadastral parcels of Medinapur sub-watershed overlaid on IRS-P6 LISS-IV merged Cartosat-1 satellite imagery was used for interpreting soil units. Soil profiles and morphological studies were made to classify entire sub-watershed (covering 4890.46 ha) into ten soil series and these soil series, further classified into 23 soil phase/management units. The results revealed that major area of 1163 ha (23.79%) covers the soil phase unit “KMLmC2” with deep (100-150 cm) clay textured, gently sloping (3-5 %) and moderately eroded (e2) lands. Two land capability classes (IIIes and IVes) were found in the study area with topography, soil erosion, texture, drainage and soil fertility as major limitation factors. Red gram (59.64%) and Sorghum (18.86%) covering maximum area in the sub watershed were assessed for crop suitability to land. To estimate the significance of crop suitability criteria to land, linear regression analysis was performed with assigned rank values of independent variables. Suitability of these crops was found that the 77.84 % of land was moderately suitable (S2) to redgram with limitations of rooting condition, erosion and topography, only depth showed significant contribution to redgram suitability with R2 = 0.744. Sorghum was highly suitable (S1) to 21.12 % of land and soil depth and pH were significantly contributing to suitability of sorghum with R2 = 0.746. The estimation of criteria for land suitability to Sorghum and Redgram was significant at 5 per cent level. In common soil depth resulted as major contributing factor in deciding land suitability to crops.

Analisis Arahan Penggunaan Lahan berdasarkan Kelas Kemampuan Lahan di Daerah Aliran Sungai Kelep Lombok

Conversion of forest land into agricultural land is a serious concern in the Kelep watershed. Agricultural methods applied without proper application of soil preservation and agrotechnology have resulted in significant erosion and reduced land productivity. Efforts to manage the Kelep watershed must be carried out by combining the interests of soil and water conservation with increase in agricultural production. The first step is to evaluate the capability of the land in this area. The aim of this study is to formulate a direction for land use for sustainable corn-based agriculture according to its capability class in the Kelep watershed. The results showed that the Kelep watershed was dominated by land with class IV 5,335.3 ha (48.02%) and VI 3,493.04 ha (30.95%) and III 1,813.71 ha (16. 32%) with the inhibiting factors for all land capability classes being the sensitivity of soil erosion (low-medium-rather high), slopes (wavy-wavy-slightly steep), and erosion damage (medium-rather heavy and heavy). Land with ability classes II, III and IV, can be utilized for the cultivation of Corn Plants (Zea Mays), accompanied by the application of agrotechnology and proper soil and water conservation so that it is sustainable, while land in class VI is not suitable for Corn cultivation, preferably for vegetation. permanent or forest in combination with the development of understorey plants with agroforestry patterns.

Evaluation of environmental carrying capacity based on land capability for agriculture development in the Melolo Transmigration Area, East Sumba

One way to do equitable development is to grow activity centers in an area. Transmigration is one of the government programs implemented to foster new activity centers in less developed areas. At present, Development Area Unit B of the Melolo Transmigration Area is a development priority to grow the area in the central part of East Sumba. The construction of transmigration settlements has been carried out since 2010 for settlement and agriculture, so it is necessary to evaluate the environmental carrying capacity to determine the suitability of land cover and land use to land capability. The method used is to compare land capability with land cover and land use and then assess its suitability. Based on the results of the analysis it is known that land capability in Development Area Unit B Melolo Transmigration Area is divided into four land capability classes, namely land capability classes I, II, III, and IV. Comparison of land capability with land cover and land use are included in the suitable criteria of 72.60 %, conditionally suitable at 23.11 %, and not suitable at 4.30 %. These results indicate that the environmental carrying capacity has not exceeded the threshold and requires conservation measures for agricultural development.

Perencanaan Penggunaan Lahan Berbasis Kemampuan Lahan di Kelurahan Kulaba, Kecamatan Ternate Barat, Kota Ternate

Land use planning is the process of inventorying and assessing the status, potential and limitations of a given area and its resources, which local people interact with or with people who care about the area to determine their needs, wants and aspirations. for the time. Kulaba sub-district is a small part of Ternate City which is located in West Ternate sub-district, which has a characteristic sloping to steep topographic area. The purpose of this study is to plan land use based on land capability, which is in the Kulaba Village, so that it becomes information in farming and other businesses. Determination of sampling points using a map then carried out a land survey with a free survey observation distance system, the approach used is analytic. Classification of land capability is categorized based on the characteristics that are potential and obstacles in its use. This analysis uses the LCLP (Land Classification and Landuse Planning) application. The results showed land use planning based on land capability that the land at the research location in Kulaba Village had four land capability classes namely III, IV, VI and VIII with the limiting factor of surface slope (L), soil permeability (P) and erosion sensitivity (KE). and subsoil texture with an area of 259.4 Ha. The alternative is that C-organic must have an important role in determining the soil's ability to support plants.

Land as a resource for biomass production

Soil cover on the area of the West Balkans is very heterogeneous. Due to limited possibilities of increasing arable lands, an issue relating to rational utilization of the existing land reserves has been raised. Namely, an increase of food costs, which coincides with global increase of biofuel production, leads to thinking that fuel production induces an increase of food costs. Suitability of land space for specific purpose utilization is based on long-term economy. This problem would be solved by biomass production on marginal lands, because productive arable lands would be intended for food production. Lands that are suitable for exploitation in intensive agricultural production and appropriate for cultivation are classified into I-IV land capability class, and lands that are less suitable and unsuitable for exploitation (marginal lands) are classified into V-VIII land capability class. In the opinion of most researchers, economic production of wood and grass biomass should be developed on the lands of IV-VIII land capability class. Thereby, there is a high percentage of abandoned and marginal agricultural lands in some countries of the West Balkans. Regarding a high percentage of meadows and pastures, which are mainly on land areas of V-VIII class and insufficient exploitation thereof, the potential of available land areas for crop cultivation for obtaining biomass is very big. They can include even temporarily lost areas (greenfields and brownfields) as well as the areas under powerlines. Land composition has a limited effect on elements concentration in the biomass and on its quality. The crops cultivated for obtaining biomass generally have low demands for nutrients and are adaptable to various land conditions. The reserves of the land organic carbon can be increased by biomass production, and in that way soil fertility can be improved. Whether through biomass production the biodiversity will be improved or decreased, it depends on the mode of utilization of land areas and on the cultivated crop management practice.

Land Capability Classification and Land Use Characteristics of 2018 According to CORINE Data in Yesilova District (Burdur)

Land Capability Classification and Land Use Characteristics of 2018 According to CORINE Data in Yesilova District (Burdur)

Generation of Detailed Soil Information for the Virudhunagar Aspirational district of Tamil Nadu using Remote Sensing & GIS Techniques for Developmental Planning

Detailed Soil Survey and Land use Planning for entire Virudhunagar aspirational district of Tamil Nadu consist of 11 Blocks such as Rajapalayam, Sirivilliputhur, Sivakasi, Sattur, Aruppukkottai, Virudhunagar, Thiruchuli, Kariyapatti, Watrap, Vembakkottai and Narikudi were completed on 1:10,000 scale using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques. The total area of the district is 4.24 Lakh ha. There are 44 soil series have been identified in the district. Out of which Virudhunagar series occupied 11.08% of the total geographical area. Granite Gneiss Geology and Pediplain (Upper and Lower) Physiography covered 65.54% and 71.37% respectively. Most of the soils are Very deep (41.91%) and Very gently sloping (61.34%) in nature affected by Moderate Erosion (66.43%). Soils series of the district are classified under soil orders Entisols, Inceptisols, Alfiisols and Vertisols. Among them Inceptisols and Vertisols dominated the area. Every Block village wise soil map, problematic area details and Land Capability Classes are generated. Majority of the soil series interpreted in Land Capability Classes II (33.66%) and III (39.64%). Cultivated Lands occupied 59.76% followed by culturable wastelands 16.1% (68,098 ha). These culturable waste lands area are occupied by vegetation i.e. Acacia species and scrublands leads to ground water depletion, soil erosion and land degradation. There is a tremendous scope to convert these lands for agriculture, horticulture and forestry activities.

Evaluation of Land Capability and Land Use Direction In the Krueng Peusangan Hilir Sub-watershed, Bireuen Regency

The destruction of forests in watershed areas has now become a concern of many parties, resulting in floods, landslides, and droughts that continue to increase. Watershed damage is accelerated by increased utilization of natural resources due to population growth and economic development, conflicts of interest, and lack of integration between sectors between the upstream-middle-downstream areas. For this reason, it is necessary to assess land capability in a watershed so that land development follows the land capability class. The research was carried out in the Krueng Peusangan Hilir Sub-watershed, Bireuen Regency, Aceh, Indonesia, from October 2021 to February 2022, which is geographically located at 95°58''00” - 96°52''00” East Longitude and 5°06''00- 5°17 ''00" North Latitude. Land use in the study is dominated by dry land agriculture, covering an area of 19,100.28 ha with a topography area from 0-8% to 25-40%. A survey method by analyzing land capability classes at the study site was carried out for each land map unit (LMU) by comparing land conditions with the land capability evaluation Hockensmith and Steele’s criteria (overlaid of determined thematic maps). The result shows that soil erodibility decreased linearly with increasing organic matter in the soil. Soils with high organic matter content have high erodibility. For the limiting factor on slopes in land capability classes found in II, III, IV, and VI class categories that are found in all LMUs, if these LMUs are used for agricultural cultivation, soil conservation measures are needed, such as making mound terraces or canal mound terraces, planting in strips and using mulch. The results show that the land capability classes consisted of 16668.30 ha in the land capability II class, 4184.06 ha land capability in the III class, 4524.91 ha in the land capability IV class, and 190.79 ha land capability VI class with a factor inhibiting soil erodibility (medium – very high) and slopes (wavy - rather steep)

Forest Land Change Assessment of Karang Mumus Sub-Watershed Area

Karang Mumus watershed is an important area as a port and gateway to the inland of East Kalimantan, causing the trade sector and water transportation services in this city to be very developed. Traders and immigrants from various regions who came in, stopped by, performed business, and stayed have caused the riverbanks to develop into economic and trade centers. One of the issues in the Karang Mumus sub-watershed is the conversion of forest area to agricultural land. With the improper use of agrotechnology and soil conservation, agricultural operations result in erosion and reduced land yield. This study aims to evaluate the Karang Mumus sub-potential watersheds to support land capability by using the overlay method (geoprocessing) of a geographic information system (GIS) based on criteria for classifying land capabilities and a data analysis approach. The findings revealed that the Karang Mumus sub-land watersheds primarily are categorized as land capacity class III, with a moderate erosion limiting factor that covers 15,864 ha (50.45%). The remaining areas are categorized into land capability classes IV and VI, with class IV having a severe slope limiting factor and class VI having a severe slope limiting factor with a fairly strong soil sensitivity to erosion, covering 8,751.14 ha (27.83%) and 6,829.85 ha (21.72%), respectively. Class III land is recommended for agricultural cultivation, application of appropriate agro-technology, and soil and water conservation. This study recommends that class IV and VI lands area are used for community forests or plantation forests managed by government agencies involved in the forest area stabilization center (BPKH) Region IV Samarinda.

Landslide hazard assessment and their application in land management in Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia

Kendari is the capital of Southeast Sulawesi Province which is prone to landslides. Good land management needs to be done to minimize the impact of landslides. This study aimed to map the Kendari landslide hazard that can be used as an input into land management strategy, especially in vulnerable to the threat of landslides. The primary data used in this study were DEMNAS and Sentinel-2. Landslide detection was carried out using a Process Hierarchy Analysis (AHP) approach and validated by field surveys. Land capability analysis was based on landform analysis using land system data. Land management directions were carried out based on the integration of landslide hazard analysis with the ability of the land to be calibrated with actual land cover. The analysis showed that areas with high and very high landslide hazards reached 2654.09 ha (9.64%) and 4354.78 ha (15.82%). Capability class of VII is spread over structural hills to the north and south of Kendari with an area of 7,215.81 ha (26.21%). Land management in areas with very high landslide hazards and land capability class VII is to add cover crops on land that is not protected by a canopy. Cover crops that can be added are the grass type to minimize the danger of erosion that can trigger landslides.

Impact of Land Capability Classes and Land Use on Properties and Erodibility Behaviour of Soil of Ghatampur Watershed

The study was carried out in Ghatampur Watershed district Kanpur under National Watershed Development Project Area. The soils of Ghatampur watershed region are erodible in nature. Soil erodibility increased from land use capability class II to VI in the project area. Fallow land is most erodible followed by Rangeland, woodlots, cultivated land while orchard & grooves lands are erodible on the basis of water stable aggregates, dispersion and erosion ratio as principal indices of erodibility, soil under various land use capability classes may be arranged in the order of class VI > class V > class III > class II. The erodibility of soil under different present land use was found in the order Fallow land > Rangeland > Wood lots > Cultivated land > Orchard & grooves land, Erosion ratio was significantly and negatively correlated with clay (r = -0.920***) moisture equivalent (r= -0.669), water holding capacity (r=-0.685**), water stable aggregate (r=- 0.834***), organic carbon (r=-0.780***) and clay/moisture equivalent ratio (r=- 0.660***) but a positive correlation was recorded with sand (r-0.777***), Bulk density (r=0.709**), easily dispersible silt+clay (r= 0.888***), clay ratio (r=0.745***),dispersion ratio (r= 0.908***), Erosion index (r=0.432**),the correlation between erosion ratio and silt (r=-0.432**) was recorded to be negative but significant. Among various land use capability classes, soil erodibility decreased substantially with increasing clay content but increased with increasing advancing capability class and fallow land use. Soil of Ghatampur watershed area in erodible nature and require warrant and prompt attention for implementing intensive soil conservation measures in the entire watershed in order to subside the havoc of soil erosion within safe limits because adapted soil conservation measure variably effective to control the erosion.

Perencanaan Penggunaan Lahan Untuk Pengembangan Budidaya Tembakau di Kabupaten Temanggung

Tobacco is one of the importan commodities in Temanggung Regency. Temanggung’s tobacco has a nicotine content from 3 – 8%, so it is used as one of the main flavoring ingredients in manufacture of cole cigarettes. The rapid development of tobacco cultivation land in Temanggung Regency was not followed by site selection according to land capability class and land suitability. The aim of this study were to, 1) calculate the aviability of land for the development of tobacco cultivation, 2) determine the land suitability class for tobacco cultivation. The matching method is use in land suitability class. Extensification of tobacco cultivation land in temanggung regency can be carrie out on land with suitability class S3 (according to marginal) covering an area of 17.490,90 ha, covering a dry area of 11.975 ha; rainfed rice fields 3.622,9 ha; and shurbs 1.893 ha . Actual land suitability class of land aviable, among others S3na (8.293,98 ha), S3nr,na (3.621,96 ha), S3rc,na (2.389,78 ha), S3tc,nr,na (1.014,93 ha), S3tc,na (787,04 ha), S3tc (402,73 ha), S3tc,nr (343,43 ha), and S3tc,rc (1,17 ha). Potential land suitability class of land aviable, among others S2na (8.293,98 ha), S2nr,na (3.621,96 ha), S3tc (2.548,13 ha), S3rc (2.389,78 ha), and S3tc,rc (1.17 ha).

Delineation and Prioritisation of Groundwater Recharge Areas in the State of Tamil Nadu using Geographical Information System

Delineation and prioritisation of suitable areas for artificial groundwater recharging (AGR) in the state of Tamil Nadu was carried out in the present study. Soil properties namely, soil drainage and land capability class, and geology of the aquifer were identified as spatial parameters that influence the AGR. Weights of 25, 25, and 50% were given to the soil drainage, land capability class, and geology of the aquifer, respectively. Variability within a specific theme was considered by assigning appropriate score to the subtheme. The depth of water table, in addition to soil drainage and land capability class, and geology of the aquifer, was used to decide the priority area of the AGR. Prioritised areas were divided into different rainfall zones as priority first (PR1) and priority second (PR2), which was found to be 14.29% and 38.18% of total area of the state, respectively. Considering bi-modal nature of rainfall in Tamil Nadu, the estimated numbers of percolation pond and check dam were worked out as 6,118 and 15,730 for PR1 areas; while numbers of percolation pond and check dam were worked out as 16,468 and 42,350 for PR2 areas, respectively. The results of this study can help state departments to implement the AGR scheme.

Land capability and carrying capacity analysis against land use change in the Motaain Border Region (Indonesia-Timor Leste)

Changes in land use in the border regions of the Motaain state (Indonesia-Timor Leste) are caused by population growth and a variety of activities of the population. Thus, changes in land use that are not controlled affect the ability and carrying capacity of the land. Moreover, the research objective is to assess the characteristics of the region from the physical aspects of the environment to spatial changes, as a reference for controlling spatial use. The analytical methods are used population density and activity density (Kernel density); analysis of activity patterns (cluster and outlier analysis and spatial auto-correlation Moran’s I); class analysis of land capability and carrying capacity (overlay); and quantitative statistical quantitative analysis. The results of the analysis explain that from the year 2013 until 2017 the border area of the Motaain state experienced population growth and activities, these affected spatial patterns that change in land use from non-developed land to build-up land. It is also explained that overlay analysis results are more dominant land capability classes are very low as well as the carrying capacity to land that is predominantly a potential and protected development area. The difference in capability and carrying capacity to land is a product of social activities that cannot be controlled.

Unlocking the Land Capability and Soil Suitability of Makuleke Farm for Sustainable Banana Production

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is experiencing an increase in food insecurity, which is fueled by both high population growth and low agricultural productivity. Smallholder farmers are seriously affected by low soil fertility, land degradation, and poor agronomic management practices that reduce crop productivity. Therefore, there is a huge need for reliable soil information to support agricultural decision-making in smallholder farms to ensure sustainable agricultural production. However, most studies focused on land capability and soil suitability do not consider the spatial variability of soils and their inherent properties. The main objectives of this study were (1) to survey, classify and characterise soils at Makuleke farm in order to derive and map the land capability classes and (2) to quantify the physical and chemical properties of the soils in order to derive and map the suitability classes. A field survey and classification of soils led by transect walks complemented by auger holes revealed existential spatial variation of soils across the 12 ha banana plantation. The dominating soil forms in the plantation were Hutton, Westleigh, Glenrosa and Valsrivier. Land capability analysis revealed that 17% of the 12 ha portion of the farm had very high arable potential, while 60% had medium arable potential, 6% of the farm had low arable potential and 17% was considered non-arable. Subsequent soil suitability analysis revealed that 12% of the farm is highly suitable, 34% is moderately suitable, 38% is marginally suitable and 16% is permanently not suitable for banana production. The variable capability of the land and suitability of soils for banana production led to notable yield gaps. The in-depth description and quantification of the productive capacity of the land is pivotal to the farmers at Makuleke farm as it unlocks their true potential and such information is crucial to effectively manage the soil and utilize the land for sustainable banana production.

Land capability analysis using LCLP software in cangkringan micro watershed model

Each land in a watershed area has different capabilities depending on the characteristics of the land in the area. Land capability analysis is needed in land management and land use, the aim is that land use can be carried out optimally and reduce the impact of land damage. Determination of land capability class using the matching method, by matching and comparing land characteristics or land limiting factors with land capability class criteria according to the USDA classification system. This study was started by conducting field observations and taking soil samples, then analyzed using Land Capability and Landuse Planing (LCLP) software and GIS to get a map of the land capability class. The results showed that the land capability in site are consists of class II-IV and VI-VII. The limiting factors for land management are erosion (e), permeability (P), texture (t) and slope (L)

Comparative Study of Three Land Evaluation Systems by using a Geographic Information System (GIS) under Mediterranean Condition

Background: The purpose of this work consists of doing a comparative study of three Land Capability Classification (LCC), Storie, National Institute of Irrigation and Drainage Institute (INSID) by applying them to the region of the Oriental Mitidja (Rouiba-Algeria). Methods: A geographic information system for the region in question was carried out, with a view to developing different thematic maps and allowing the comparison of these three evaluation systems, thanks to a database that has been created for this purpose. Result: The system adapted by INSID has given rise to lower evaluation results compared to the two other systems, because 99.99% of the total agricultural ability by the LCC, 97% Apt for agriculture. By Storie while only 48% of the total area is fit for agriculture according to INSID. Statistical results have shown the existence of a significant difference between the three land evaluation systems. However, the correlation is significant between the INSID and STORIE system.

Comparison of three land evaluation systems in capability assessment of soils of coastal plains sand in Southeastern Nigeria

Land evaluation systems vary in approach and have not always produced good results outside regions where they were originally conceived. To test the extent of their agreement, Land Capability Classification (LCC), Fertility Capability Classification (FCC), and Suitability Rating were combined in physically evaluating soils of Coastal plains sand, Imo State, Nigeria, using data from 20 pedons. With respect to LCC, soils of inland valleys were limited mainly by wetness, which had 2 out of 6 profiles of the unit classified beyond the arable. The well-drained upland soils, all of which fell within the arable classes, were subject to sheet and rill erosion. By standards of FCC, soils were limited by ‘g’ - water logging; e - low ability to retain nutrients; i - potential fe - toxicity; k - low nutrient capital reserves. Based on suitability rating, soils potentials for agriculture varied from poor to good. Results of LCC and FCC correlated significantly (r = 0.771), but none of these correlated with suitability ratings of the soils. Use of the international systems should be augmented with further soil tests some of which may be got from other comparable systems so as to capture other locally important environmental details. Subjecting factors identified by FCC to suitability rating improved evaluation procedure. Land use in the location did not strictly consider the capability of the land. Cultivating rice to the wet soils or draining them, contour cultivation on slopes, adequate fertilization of soils are recommendations to improve land management.