Lake Sakakawea Research Articles

Fighting for Farmers

Fighting for Farmers

Simplifying the Complex: Pool Stage-Frequency Analysis of USACE’s Largest Reservoir

Lake Sakakawea in North Dakota, U.S.A., was formed following the closure of Garrison Dam in 1953 and is the largest U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) reservoir. It is the second of six mainstem reservoirs located in series on the Missouri River operated as a system by USACE. Critical for dam safety risk analysis, a pool stage-frequency curve, extending to water levels above the top of dam, was developed for an Issue Evaluation Study using a combination of tools, including Monte Carlo simulation with the recently released USACE reservoir frequency analysis software, RMCRFA. This paper describes the hydrologic tools leveraged to expedite the pool stage-frequency analysis and discusses the challenges overcome during the study. The methods used to reduce a complex reservoir system to a simplified single reservoir model are presented, and statistical challenges associated with mixed population rain/snow floods, paleofloods, and regulated basin data are discussed. The simplified approach was capable of incorporating a variety of hydrology inputs, while providing a reasonable approximation for the complex reservoir operations. The results were transparent and easily understood by decision makers tasked with making portfolio-wide investment decisions.

Asymmetric benefits of a heterospecific breeding association vary with habitat, conspecific abundance and breeding stage

Heterospecific breeding associations may benefit individuals by mitigating predation risk but may also create costs if they increase competition for resources or are more easily detectable by predators. Our understanding of the interactions among hetero‐ and conspecifics is often lacking in mixed species colonies. Here, we test how the presence of hetero‐ and conspecifics influence nest and chick survival for two listed (under the U.S. Endangered Species Act) migratory species breeding on the Missouri River, USA. We monitored 2507 piping plover Charadrius melodus nests and 3245 chicks as well as 1060 least tern Sternula antillarum nests and 1374 chicks on Lake Sakakawea, the Garrison River Reach and the Gavins Point Reach for varying years between 2007 and 2016. Piping plover nest and chick survival improved with the presence and abundance of least terns, but least terns only benefited from piping plover presence for certain study areas and breeding stages. Piping plover nest survival was also improved by the presence and abundance of conspecifics on the Garrison River Reach and was negatively influenced by conspecific presence on Lake Sakakawea. Least tern chick survival improved with the presence of other least terns only on the Gavins Point Reach. Ultimately, the heterospecific breeding association between plovers and terns is mutualistic but asymmetric and is moderated by habitat, abundance of conspecifics and breeding stage. Our results highlight that spatiotemporal variation in the interactions among individuals breeding in groups precludes simple generalizations and suggests that management focused on one species may restrict benefits to that focal species if nest site requirements for heterospecifics are not also included.

Remembering Nishu: Spatiality and Belonging in the Missouri River Bottomlands

Abstract The late nineteenth and twentieth centuries witnessed profound transformations in the organization of North Dakota’s Native American communities. The end of the fur trade, depleting timber resources, and the passage of the Dawes Act in 1887 led to the eventual fissioning of the coalescent community of Like-A-Fishhook Village. Despite their co-residence at the site for almost three decades, the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara people reestablished ethnically distinct villages in the bottomlands of the Missouri River within the Fort Berthold Reservation. Most of the Arikara population settled on allotments in the Nishu area until it was inundated by the Garrison Dam in the early 1950s. Through interviews with Arikara elders, this collaborative project documents the lived experience of Nishu, now under the waters of Lake Sakakawea and visually inaccessible to their descendants. It investigates the role of spatiality and temporality in community construction—specifically, how the persistence of Arikara memory and tradition empowered residents to navigate changes wrought by the assimilative policies of the U.S government. This research revealed that Arikara memories of these submerged lands embody a dialectic of pervasive nostalgia about living there and profound trauma about being forced to leave. Through this dialectic, it elucidates how time, movement, and place are complicit in residents’ sense of belonging, and discusses the inherent challenges in (re)constructing a community’s memory of “erased” heritage.

Salting the Earth: The Environmental Impact of Oil and Gas Wastewater Spills.

Salting the Earth: The Environmental Impact of Oil and Gas Wastewater Spills.

Range-wide assessment of pallid sturgeonScaphirhynchus albus(Forbes & Richardson, 1905) relative condition

Pallid sturgeon Scaphirhynchus albus relative condition has been observed to be declining along the Nebraska reach (rkm 1212.6–801.3) of the Missouri River over the past several years; therefore, pallid sturgeon capture data was synthesized from the entire Missouri and Middle Mississippi rivers to document and compare how pallid sturgeon condition varies spatially and temporally throughout much of their current range. The study area was subdivided into four river reaches based on a priori statistical differences for pallid sturgeon catches from 2003 to 2015. Pallid sturgeon in the Middle Mississippi River (Alton Dam [rkm 321.9]) to the confluence of the Ohio River (rkm 0.0) were in the best condition while pallid sturgeon in the Middle Missouri River (Fort Randall Dam [rkm 1416.2]) to the Grand River confluence (rkm 402.3) were in the poorest condition. Furthermore, pallid sturgeon condition in the Upper Missouri River (Fort Peck Dam [rkm 2850.9] to the headwaters of Lake Sakakawea [rkm 2523.5] and lower Yellowstone River) and the Lower Missouri River (Grand River confluence to the Mississippi River confluence [rkm 0.0]) were significantly less than in the Middle Mississippi River but significantly higher than the Middle Missouri River. Temporally, pallid sturgeon condition was highly variable. Relative condition in the Middle Mississippi River was consistently above average (Kn = 1.1). Comparatively, Kn throughout the Missouri River rarely exceeded “normal” (Kn = 1.0), with Kn in the middle and lower reaches of the Missouri River having declined to the lowest observed. As pallid sturgeon recovery efforts continue, understanding the range-wide differences and effects on condition could be critical, as poor condition may cause maturation delays, reproductive senescence or even mortality, which affects the likelihood of natural reproduction and recruitment.

Managing the Increasing Water Footprint of Hydraulic Fracturing in the Bakken Play, United States.

The water footprint of oil production, including water used for hydraulic fracturing (HF) and flowback-produced (FP) water, is increasingly important in terms of HF water sourcing and FP water management. Here, we evaluate trends in HF water use relative to supplies and FP water relative to disposal using well by well analysis in the Bakken Play. HF water use per well increased by ∼6 times from 2005-2014, totaling 24.5 × 10(9) gal (93 × 10(9) L) for ∼10 140 wells. Water supplies expanded to meet increased demand, including access of up to ∼33 × 10(9) gal/year (125 × 10(9) L/year) from Lake Sakakawea, expanding pipeline infrastructure by hundreds of miles and allowing water transfers from irrigation. The projected inventory of ∼60 000 future wells should require an additional ∼11 times more HF water. Cumulative FP water has been managed by disposal into an increasing number (277 to 479) of salt water disposal wells. FP water is projected to increase by ∼10 times during the play lifetime (∼40 years). Disposal of FP water into deeper geologic units should be considered because of reported overpressuring of parts of the Dakota Group. The long time series shows how policies have increased water supplies for HF and highlights potential issues related to FP water management.

Effects of Exposure to the Sound from Seismic Airguns on Pallid Sturgeon and Paddlefish.

This study examined the effects of exposure to a single acoustic pulse from a seismic airgun array on caged endangered pallid sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus) and on paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) in Lake Sakakawea (North Dakota, USA). The experiment was designed to detect the onset of physiological responses including minor to mortal injuries. Experimental fish were held in cages as close as 1 to 3 m from the guns where peak negative sound pressure levels (Peak- SPL) reached 231 dB re 1 μPa (205 dB re 1 μPa2·s sound exposure level [SEL]). Additional cages were placed at greater distances in an attempt to develop a dose-response relationship. Treatment and control fish were then monitored for seven days, euthanized, and necropsied to determine injuries. Necropsy results indicated that the probability of delayed mortality associated with pulse pressure following the seven day monitoring period was the same for exposed and control fish of both species. Exposure to a single pulse from a small air gun array (10,160 cm3) was not lethal for pallid sturgeon and paddlefish. However, the risks from exposure to multiple sounds and to sound exposure levels that exceed those reported here remain to be examined.

Strategies for Community and Industry Water Management in the Oil Producing Region of North Dakota

North Dakota’s Bakken region has surged to become an important oil-producing region. One of the key concerns for ensuring sustained growth in this region is the availability of water. This paper will review current water management practices and review alternative policies with special attention to the needs of North Dakota’s rural communities. Although the region is semi-arid, there is an abundance of water available in the Missouri River and Lake Sakakawea. Efforts to utilize available water have been impaired by the US Army Corps of Engineers’ reservoir management polices as well as difficulties in constructing infrastructure during boom drilling. North Dakota was fortunate to dedicate oil revenue for water development. In addition, the expansion of regional water systems has been partially funded by sales to drilling operations. These water systems will benefit both industry and local communities.

Transformative Consequences of Garrison Dam: Land, People, and the Practice of Archaeology

Transformative Consequences of Garrison DamLand, People, and the Practice of Archaeology Lotte E. Govaerts (bio) Key Words Missouri River, North Dakota, population displacement, River Basin Surveys, Sacagawea, Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation Dam building is a major human endeavor. The World Register of Dams currently lists 58,266 “large dams,” defined as those measuring over fifteen meters in height.1 Smaller dams are not included in the register, but in aggregate, small reservoirs are estimated to have three or four times as much total surface area as large dam reservoirs. Global estimates for reservoir area vary, ranging between 400,000 km2 (estimated in 1993) and 1,500,000 km2 (estimated in 2000).2 The United States, with 9,265 large dams, is the second most dammed country in the world (After China’s 23,842 and followed by India’s 5,102).3 Including smaller dams, the total for the United States adds up to some 75,000 dams. All US watersheds larger than 2,000 square kilometers have one or more dams altering their flow.4 Garrison Dam in North Dakota (Fig. 1) is one of many large dams built in the United States during the mid-twentieth century. This essay examines the history and impact of Garrison Dam and its reservoir, Lake Sakakawea. The focus is historical issues related to dam construction, as well as the environmental and social impacts of large dams in general and of Garrison Dam in particular. Most importantly, included is an investigation as to how archaeology in North America was influenced by the construction of Garrison Dam and the other large dams on the Upper Missouri River. The Construction of Garrison Dam—A Federal Affair Garrison Dam, built between 1946 and 1952, is an example of a modern dam. Dam building, irrigation, and hydropower have been practiced for thousands of years. The extensively researched Jawa dams in present-day Jordan date to approximately 3000 bce and are often [End Page 281] cited as the oldest known dams, although archaeological evidence of irrigation canals in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains in Iran is potentially associated with even earlier dam-building activities.5 Structures built to divert rivers for irrigation or water storage existed throughout the Middle East and Egypt in the second and third millennium bce, and spread throughout the Mediterranean and Europe during the Greek and Roman periods.6 Technologies for converting flowing water into mechanical energy date back almost equally far.7 Click for larger view View full resolution Fig 1. Map of Garrison Dam and Lake Sakakawea on the Missouri River in North Dakota (based on data from Google). Archaeological evidence of dam building also exists in the Far East as well as the Americas.8 Dams in the Americas long preceded the arrival of Europeans. The Chimu Empire of the Andean highlands (in present-day Peru) constructed dams, as did the Maya in the northern part of the Yucatan Peninsula.9 The Hohokam constructed elaborate irrigation networks in what is now the state of Arizona.10 Modern-era dam construction proliferated with the industrial revolution as bigger industries needed more water power, and growing urban areas needed a larger water supply. Dams grew ever larger, but until the twentieth century there was little scientific understanding of dam engineering and thus there were frequent collapses and other failures.11 In the nineteenth-century United States, there were many dams built for municipal use, industrial power, and irrigation by local governments or collectives of water users. [End Page 282] This changed in the twentieth century, when the federal government became the dominant dam builder.12 Two agencies were primarily in charge of building the large dams of the twentieth century: the US Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation. The US Army Corps of Engineers was established shortly After US independence. From the beginning there was a push for the Corps to do “works of a civil nature” in addition to military construction. In 1816, mobilization studies based on data from the War of 1812 concluded that national defense would benefit from improved rivers, harbors, and transportation systems, allowing for faster troop movement and logistics...

Habitat selection and movements of Piping Plover broods suggest a tradeoff between breeding stages

In precocial birds, adults select breeding areas using cues associated with habitat characteristics that are favorable for nesting success and chick survival, but there may be tradeoffs in habitat selection between these breeding stages. Here we describe habitat selection and intra-territory movements of 53 Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) broods (320 observations) during the 2007–2008 breeding seasons on mainland- and island-shoreline habitats at Lake Sakakawea, North Dakota, USA. We used remotely sensed habitat characteristics to separately examine habitat selection and movements at two spatiotemporal scales to account for potential confounding effects of nest-site selection on brood-rearing habitat used. The scales used were (1) the entire brood-rearing period within available brood-rearing areas and (2) 2-day observation intervals within age-specific discrete habitat selection choice sets. Analyses at both scales indicated that broods selected areas which were non-vegetated, moderately level, and nearer to the shoreline. Rate of brood movement increased with age up to 5 days, then stabilized; broods that hatched >50 m away from the shoreline moved toward the shoreline. Brood movements were greater when they were in vegetated areas, when the brood-rearing area was of greater topographic complexity, and when broods aged 6–25 days were further away from the shoreline. Using inferences from our results and those of previously published work, we postulate how a potential tradeoff in habitat selection between nesting and brood-rearing can contribute to an ecological trap in a novel habitat. This work, in the context of published works, suggests that plover breeding habitat is a complex of both nesting and brood-rearing habitats and provides a basis for making remotely sensed abundance estimates of suitable breeding habitat for Piping Plovers.

Geoarchaeology and paleoenvironmental context of the Beacon Island site, an Agate Basin (Paleoindian) bison kill in northwestern North Dakota, USA

A geoarchaeological investigation that included soil-stratigraphic and paleoecological analyses was conducted at Beacon Island, located in the flood pool of Lake Sakakawea in northwestern North Dakota. Beacon Island is a multi-component archaeological site that includes an Agate Basin (Paleoindian) component consisting of the butchered remains of at least 29 Bison antiquus, along with projectile point fragments and other artifacts. The bison bonebed is a product of a single kill at ca. 10,300 B.P. and is buried in a shallow kettle basin. The basin formed around 16,000–15,000 B.P. and initially trapped loess comprising the Mallard Island Member of the Oahe Formation; other members of the Oahe Formation subsequently filled the basin. Conditions probably were relatively dry when the Mallard Island Member aggraded, but by ca. 10,300 B.P. paludal deposits comprising the Aggie Brown Member began to accumulate in the basin, indicating a shift to wetter conditions. Based on phytolith and stable carbon isotope data, cool-season C3 prairie species dominated the site at the time of the bison kill, and the micromammal faunal assemblage suggests that this boreal grassland may have been punctuated by stands of shrubby vegetation. Slight warming and drying occurred soon after ca. 10,300 B.P., indicated by relatively higher δ13C values determined on soil organic matter and a significant increase in concentrations of microscopic particulate charcoal and drought-resistant Stipa-type phytoliths, but paludal deposits continued to aggrade, resulting in deep burial of the bonebed. Sedimentation was relatively slow in the basin, allowing soil development to keep up with deposition. This cumulization process resulted in the formation of an overthickened A horizon in the Aggie Brown Member, typical of the Leonard Paleosol. Aggradation of the Aggie Brown Member ceased by ca. 8000 B.P., and loess comprising the Pick City Member began accumulating soon after that time, likely marking the initiation of the warm, dry Altithermal climatic episode. Isotope and phytolith data also point to a warmer and probably drier climate after 8000 B.P., indicated by higher δ13C values and the appearance of warm-season C4 chloridoids at the site. Hence the Agate Basin occupation coincided with the coolest and perhaps the wettest climatic episode recorded in the sampled deposits. However, it is likely that the people associated with the Agate Basin culture at Beacon Island did not experience environmental conditions dramatically different from the modern conditions at the site.

Landscape selection by piping plovers has implications for measuring habitat and population size

How breeding birds distribute in relation to landscape-scale habitat features has important implications for conservation because those features may constrain habitat suitability. Furthermore, knowledge of these associations can help build models to improve area-wide demographic estimates or to develop a sampling stratification for research and monitoring. This is particularly important for rare species that have uneven distributions across vast areas, such as the federally listed piping plover (Charadrius melodus; hereafter plover). We examined how remotely-sensed landscape features influenced the distribution of breeding plover pairs among 2-km shoreline segments during 2006–2009 at Lake Sakakawea in North Dakota, USA. We found strong associations between remotely-sensed landscape features and plover abundance and distribution (R2 = 0.65). Plovers were nearly absent from segments with bluffs (>25 m elevation increase within 250 m of shoreline). Relative plover density (pairs/ha) was markedly greater on islands (4.84 ± 1.22 SE) than on mainlands (0.85 ± 0.17 SE). Pair numbers increased with abundance of nesting habitat (unvegetated-flat areas \({\hat{\beta }} = 0.28 \pm 0.08\,{\text{SE}}\)). On islands, pair numbers also increased with the relative proportion of the total area that was habitat (\({\hat{\beta }} = 3.27 \, \pm \, 0.46\,{\text{SE}}\)). Our model could be adapted to estimate the breeding population of plovers or to make predictions that provide a basis for stratification and design of future surveys. Knowledge of landscape features, such as bluffs, that exclude use by birds refines habitat suitability and facilitates more accurate estimates of habitat and population abundance, by decreasing the size of the sampling universe. Furthermore, techniques demonstrated here are applicable to other vast areas where birds breed in sparse or uneven densities.

The role of landscape features and density dependence in growth and fledging rates of Piping Plovers in North Dakota, USA

ABSTRACT For species with precocial young, survival from hatching to fledging is a key factor influencing recruitment. Furthermore, growth rates of precocial chicks are an indicator of forage quality and habitat suitability of brood-rearing areas. We examined how growth and fledging rates of Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) chicks were influenced by landscape features, such as hatchling density (hatchlings per hectare of remotely sensed habitat [H ha−1]), island vs. mainland, and wind fetch (exposure to waves) at 2-km segments (n = 15) of Lake Sakakawea, North Dakota, during 2007–2008. Hatchling growth was comparable with published estimates for other habitats. Models for fledging rate (fledged young per segment) assuming density dependence had more support (wi = 96%) than those assuming density independence (wi = 4%). Density-dependent processes appeared to influence fledging rate only at densities >5 H ha−1, which occurred in 19% of the segments we sampled. When areas with densities >5 H ha−1 were exc...

Measuring and predicting abundance and dynamics of habitat for piping plovers on a large reservoir

Measuring habitat and understanding habitat dynamics have become increasingly important for wildlife conservation. Using remotely-sensed data, we developed procedures to measure breeding habitat abundance for the federally listed piping plover (Charadrius melodus) at Lake Sakakawea, North Dakota, USA. We also developed a model to predict habitat abundance based on past and projected water levels, vegetation colonization rates, and topography. Previous studies define plover habitat as flat areas (<10% slope) with ≤30% obstruction of bare substrate. Compared to ground-based data, remotely-sensed habitat classifications (≤30/>30% bare-substrate obstruction) were 76% correct and omission and commission errors were equal. Due to water level fluctuations, habitat abundance varied markedly among years (1986–2009) ranging from 9 to 5195ha. The proportion bare substrate declined with the number of years since a contour was inundated until 5 years (βˆ=−0.65, SE=0.05), then it stabilized near zero, and the decline varied by shoreline segment (5, 50, and 95 percentile were βˆ=−0.19, SE=0.05, βˆ=−0.63, SE=0.05, and βˆ=−0.91, SE=0.05, respectively). Years since inundated predicted habitat abundance well at shoreline segments (R2=0.77), but it predicted better for the whole lake (R2=0.86). The vastness and dynamics of plover habitat on Lake Sakakawea suggest that this is a key area for conservation of this species. Model-based habitat predictions can benefit resource conservation because they can (1) form the basis for a sampling stratification, (2) help allocate monitoring efforts among areas, and (3) help inform management through simulations or what-if scenarios.

Marking power lines to reduce avian collisions near the Audubon National Wildlife Refuge, North Dakota

Overhead power lines can pose collision risks to birds. Risks may be mitigated through marking lines with high-visibility devices, but the effectiveness of line marking remains unclear. Effectiveness is particularly poorly described for lines bisecting open water, where detection of carcasses can be difficult. We marked 3 of 9 spans (lines between adjacent structures) along a causeway crossing open water and 2 adjacent spans over lake shores between Lake Sakakawea and Lake Audubon near Audubon National Wildlife Refuge, North Dakota, USA. Over 3 years, we found 1,186 avian carcasses, including 276 attributed to power-line collision. American coots (Fulica americana; n = 83) and double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus; n = 27) were the species most commonly associated with power-line collision, but we also found carcasses of 51 other species, including a piping plover (Charadrius melodus; n = 1). Multi-variable modeling indicated line marking over open water reduced predicted collisions per span per season (mid-April through mid-October, 2006–2008) from 10.3 to 5.8. Birds with high-aspect-ratio wings benefitted most from line marking (e.g., shorebirds and gulls). If the 9 open-water spans we studied were unmarked for 30 years, we predicted 2,775 collisions. We predicted only 1,560 collisions if all of these spans were marked. Our data demonstrate that a wide variety of avian species are at risk of collision with lines bisecting open water, marking lines can reduce collision risk, and because collisions persisted and some line markers fell off power lines, improvements to effectively mark lines are needed. © 2013 The Wildlife Society.

Nest survival of piping plovers at a dynamic reservoir indicates an ecological trap for a threatened population

In the past 60years, reservoirs have reshaped riverine ecosystems and transformed breeding habitats used by the threatened piping plover (Charadrius melodus; hereafter plover). Currently, 29% of the Northern Great Plains plover population nests at reservoirs that might function as ecological traps because reservoirs have more diverse habitat features and greater dynamics in water levels than habitats historically used by breeding plovers. We examined factors influencing daily survival rates (DSR) of 346 plover nests at Lake Sakakawea (SAK; reservoir) during 2006-2009 by evaluating multiple a priori models, and we used our best model to hindcast nest success of plovers during 1985-2009. Our observed and hindcast estimates of nest success were low compared to published estimates. Previous findings indicate that plovers prefer nest sites that are low relative to water level. We found that elevation of nests above the water level had a strong positive correlation with DSR because water levels of SAK typically increased throughout the nesting period. Habitat characteristics on the reservoir differ from those that shaped nest-site selection for plovers. Accordingly, extraordinary nest loss occurs there in many years, largely due to inundation of nests, and based on low fledging rates those losses were not compensated by potential changes in chick survival. Therefore, our example supports the concept of ecological traps in birds because it addresses quantitative assessments of habitat preference and productivity over 25years (since species listing) and affects a large portion of the population.

Selection Indicates Preference in Diverse Habitats: A Ground-Nesting Bird (Charadrius melodus) Using Reservoir Shoreline

Animals use proximate cues to select resources that maximize individual fitness. When animals have a diverse array of available habitats, those selected could give insights into true habitat preferences. Since the construction of the Garrison Dam on the Missouri River in North Dakota, Lake Sakakawea (SAK) has become an important breeding area for federally threatened piping plovers (Charadrius melodus; hereafter plovers). We used conditional logistic regression to examine nest-site selection at fine scales (1, 3, and 10 m) during summers 2006–2009 by comparing characteristics at 351 nests to those of 668 random sites within nesting territories. Plovers selected sites (1 m2) that were lower than unused random sites, increasing the risk of nest inundation. Plovers selected nest sites that were flat, had little silt, and at least 1 cobble; they also selected for 3-m radius nest areas that were relatively flat and devoid of vegetation and litter. Ninety percent of nests had <38% coverage of silt and <10% slope at the site, and <15% coverage of vegetation or litter and <31% slope within the 3-m radius. Gravel was selected for at nest sites (11% median), but against in the area 10-m from the nest, suggesting plovers select for patches or strips of gravel. Although elevation is rarely evaluated in studies of ground-nesting birds, our results underscore its importance in habitat-selection studies. Relative to where plovers historically nested, habitat at SAK has more diverse topography, substrate composition, vegetation communities, and greater water-level fluctuations. Accordingly, our results provide an example of how habitat-selection results can be interpreted as habitat preferences because they are not influenced by desired habitats being scarce or absent. Further, our results will be useful for directing habitat conservation for plovers and interpreting other habitat-selection studies.

The remaking of Lake Sakakawea: Locating cultural viability in negative heritage on the Missouri River

ABSTRACTThe creation of Lake Sakakawea in North Dakota during the 1950s resulted in significant grief and loss for the Fort Berthold Indian community and continues to figure prominently in the collective memory of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara people. Drawing from ethnographic information pre‐ and postdating dam construction, we examine the lake's paradoxical identities in the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation worldview, as a repository of negative memory and as a locale of cultural knowledge, continuity, and meaning. The tribe's response to the construction of the lake illustrates how physical and psychological adjustments to irreparable loss can resituate negative heritage as culturally viable property.

Southern and Northern Great Plains (United States) Paddlefish Stocks Within Frameworks of Acipenseriform Life History and the Metabolic Theory of Ecology

Sampling conducted in 2008–2010 on a southern Great Plains stock of paddlefish Polyodon spathula inhabiting the Neosho River, Spring River, and Grand Lake, Oklahoma, is characterized (1) in terms of the Acipenseriform life history framework outlined for the Yellowstone–Sakakawea stock of the Northern Plains and (2) in relation to the framework metabolic theory of ecology and associated latitudinal and environmental correlations with lifespan. In the Grand Lake stock, male fish typically mature at ages 6–7, and females mature at ages 8–9. The five stages of the lifespan (immature, maturing, growth and reproduction, prime reproduction, senescence to death) are compressed into a period of 15–20 years; the prime reproduction period occurs from ages 12 to 16 years for females. This lifespan compares to one of 40–50 years (and occasionally longer), and a prime reproduction period for females from ages 25 to 40 years, for the Yellowstone–Sakakawea stock. The more compressed lifespan of the Grand Lake stock and lower energy storage, as indicated by weights of gonadal fat bodies, are consistent with the framework metabolic theory of ecology. Over the course of a year, fish in Grand Lake are under a much higher metabolic demand than those in Lake Sakakawea. The distinct differences detailed between these two stocks from the southern and northern plains may exist between other paddlefish stocks, other Acipenseriform species, and other fish taxa separated by large latitudinal and climatic differences. The results have specific implications for harvest management and effects of climate change on Acipenseriform life histories and lifespan.