Lagoa Santa Research Articles

Karst Hydrological Connections of Lakes and Neoproterozoic Hydrogeological System between the Years 1985–2020, Lagoa Santa—Minas Gerais, Brazil

Karst Hydrological Connections of Lakes and Neoproterozoic Hydrogeological System between the Years 1985–2020, Lagoa Santa—Minas Gerais, Brazil

Arsenic and metal levels in snake tissues from Lagoa Santa Karst, Brazil.

Concentrations of one metalloid (As) and eight metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were determined in tissues (muscle, liver, and kidney) of eight snake species (Bothrops neuwiedi, Crotalus durissus, Dipsas mikanii, Epicrates crassus, Helicops modestus, Micrurus carvalhoi, Oxyrhopus guibei, and Oxyrhopus trigeminus) from Lagoa Santa Karst. Except for Cu and Zn, all other analyzed elements were detected in concentrations within the ranges previously reported for snakes inhabiting polluted areas, emphasizing Hg (specific Hg mean concentrations varied from 0.87 to 9.76μgg-1 d.w). The highest mean concentrations of all elements except Zn were found in muscle samples of the false corals O. guibei (means ranged from 2.01 [Pb] to 9.76 [Hg]). The highest Zn mean concentration (13.77μgg-1 d.w) was detected in the kidney of the water snake H. modestus. No significant correlation was found between element concentrations and body size for all species. Significant interorgan differences were observed for As, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Pb, and Zn concentrations in the three tissues in H. modestus. Significant interspecific differences were found in at least one organ for all elements. Significant pairwise differences were found between diet specialist species and between these species and broader diet species, while no significant difference was found between the broader diet species. The bioaccumulation of As and metals in snakes from Lagoa Santa Karst could be associated with natural rock dissolution and erosion processes but also with the wide-scale mining in the region and the increased agriculture and urbanization.

Hydrogeochemistry of aquifers in the northern portion of the Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area and surroundings, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil

The studied region, located in the central part of Minas Gerais state, Brazil, encompasses the northern portion of the Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area (APA) and adjacent areas to the west. It is notable for harboring important karstic aquifers and archaeological and paleontological sites of global significance. The research aims to define the key parameters that characterize the waters of the aquifers, quantifying their most frequent maximum and minimum concentrations. For this purpose, water sampling and hydrochemical analyses were conducted at 51 water points. Hierarchical clustering analysis facilitated the association of samples with aquifer units. Utilizing Piper and Stiff diagrams, boxplot graphs, and proportional symbol maps enabled the classification of water and the determination of its hydrochemical signatures. All sampled waters are bicarbonated, with 87% being calcic. Waters associated with metacalcareous rocks exhibit higher concentrations of calcium (Ca2⁺), bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻), electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), and hydrogenionic potential (pH) compared to waters associated with non-carbonate rocks. Waters from the Lagoa Santa Member differ from those of the Pedro Leopoldo Member by higher concentrations of Ca2⁺ and HCO₃⁻ and slightly lower concentrations of sodium (Na⁺), magnesium (Mg2⁺), and silica (SiO₄2⁻). Non-carbonate waters related to granite-gneisses differ from those associated with metapelites by slightly higher concentrations of potassium (K⁺), sodium (Na⁺), silica (SiO₄2⁻), and barium (Ba2⁺). Additionally, hydrochemical variations have been linked to the regional groundwater flow (from west to east). The results obtained have enabled advancements in the hydrogeochemical understanding of the study area and can be valuable for comparative studies in other karst regions, contributing to more effective water resource management aimed at environmental conservation and water sustainability, a growing global concern.

The antiquity and ancestral origin of humans in the americas: a five hundred year inquiry from a biological anthropology perspective.

The questions -When did humans arrive in the Americas? Who were they, or from where did they come from? -are enduring and fascinating inquiries that have been approached from different perspectives, thanks to the contributions of archaeology, biological anthropology, and linguistics, among other disciplines. As a result, and after several centuries of studies, this body of research inspired several proposed models on the peopling of the Americas. These models are not only equally unique from each other but also distinct from the current themes in recent literature. However, there is a limited and occasionally inaccurate reference to the knowledge produced in the peripheral countries. This may be attributed to differences in language, academic traditions, as well as the consequences of geopolitics and neocolonialism in science. By reviewing both the old and recent literature, my aim is to present a historical account of how biological evidence has contributed to supporting and discussing some of the broad models that were proposed to explain the peopling of the Americas. Instead of providing an exhaustive account on the models, herein I focus on critically linking evidence and discussions ranging from the early skeletal discoveries at Lagoa Santa in Brazil in the 1830s to the current challenges of integrating a large amount of disparate data and collaborating with indigenous communities in the "omics" era. Far from being fully understood, investigations into the antiquity and the ancestral origin of Native Americans are revealing that these complex questions should be addressed by combining diverse data, articulating information at finer and larger grain scales, and adopting a sensitive and respectful approach by engaging with the views of indigenous communities.

Groundwater flow modelling in Neoproterozoic carbonate karst based on dye tracer pathways

The current study consisted of the development of a hydrogeological numerical model in the Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection region, in order to represent the conduit-flow karst springs in the most well-studied karst system in Brazil. Once carbonate aquifers are characterized by a complex 3D pattern with a combination of a double porosity of matrix and conduits, two different modelling approaches were used: Equivalent Porous Medium (EPM), based on Darcy’s law, to represent laminar flow in the fractured massif and Conduit Network (CN), using Manning-Stricker Law and the discrete feature tool, to represent the karst conduits with turbulent flow. Modeling was calibrated in a steady-state and simulations of groundwater flow and an evaluation of water exchanges between the karstic aquifer and the other hydrogeological units, were conducted. The model was developed based on data available for many studies carried out in the area, including tracer-derived route data. The calibration results for spring discharges, water levels and mass balance were satisfactory and aligned with modeling good practices. In turn, the hydraulic conductivities and recharge rates obtained by back-analysis were in agreement with literature references. The regional groundwater flow was well represented and indicated how external water entrances can be relevant to explain the higher discharge rates observed in some karstic springs. In addition, the representation of conduits allowed for the simulation of tracer pathways, enabling the inference of potential flow rates to the karstic springs from the particle simulations.

Two new cavernicolous species of Pseudochthonius Balzan, 1892 (Pseudoscorpiones, Chthoniidae) from Lagoa Santa karst, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Two new pseudoscorpion species of the genus Pseudochthonius Balzan, 1892 are described from caves in the Lagoa Santa karst area in Southeast Brazil. Pseudochthonius limettioides sp. nov. was collected in ten caves and is a troglobite that lacks eyes and body pigmentation. Pseudochthonius lundi sp. nov. was collected in three caves and is considered a troglophile with only one pair of eyes. Both species might be threatened by mining projects and more studies are needed to better understand many aspects of their biology.

Estimating transmissivity and storativity in a karst aquifer by direct and indirect methods

AbstractThe karst aquifer located in the Environmental Protection Area of Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, exhibits the characteristic morphological features of an evolved karst environment, including large caves, sinkholes, and copious springs. Understanding the hydrogeological characteristics of karst aquifers is crucial for effective management of public resources and prevention of contamination, as these aquifers are highly vulnerable, making it essential to identify and mitigate potential risks. Given the ongoing economic and population growth in this region, the assessment of the hydrogeological parameters that control the dynamics of local flow becomes relevant for the proper evaluation of hydrogeological models and the management of water resources. Four classical pumping test analysis methods were compared to quantify the flow and storativity of the aquifer: Theis (1935), Neuman (1972), Moench (1984), and Agarwal (1980). In addition, indirect estimation methods based on the identification of capture zones and the analysis of recession curves of water courses were employed, since these approaches are cheaper and easier to apply in areas with low information. The statistical analysis of the results suggests that classical solutions can be applied to the karst aquifer to estimate hydrogeological parameters, apart from the Storage Coefficient obtained using the Neuman method. In general, the indirect estimation methods tend to produce values that are consistent with those obtained through direct methods, albeit with some reservations. The transmissivity values obtained from the pumping tests were approximately 3.0 × 10−4 m2/s, while the storage coefficient is estimated to be around 3.7 × 10−3. The indirect estimation methods yield transmissivity values of about 1.8 × 10−4 m2/s using the capture zone method, and storage coefficient values of 4.0 × 10−3 and 3.9 × 10−2 using recession curve analysis.

Characterization and classification of lakes based on geospatial analyses in the karst hydrogeological system of the Bambuí group, Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil

The karst of Lagoa Santa is a protected area located near the city of Belo Horizonte, in Minas Gerais state (Brazil), namely Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area (EPA), one of the main research areas related to archeology, paleontology, speleology and hydrogeology in the Brazilian territory. The region is comprised by several lakes, because of its complex water system due to karst evolution. In addition, the karstic nature of the rocks in the region allows the existence of several other typical dissolution morphologies, such as: caves, speleothems, sinkholes, uvalas, among others. The morpho-structural characteristics, combined with the local geology, can provide important information about the behavior of lakes in view of the cycles of expansion and retraction of the water surface. Thus, this work aims to understand the water dynamics of the lakes present in the Karst of Lagoa Santa through analysis of spatial data between the years 1984 and 2020. Based on the surveys, 153 lakes were identified in the study region in the last 35 years: 40 perennial lakes, 89 intermittent lakes, 19 new lakes and 5 lakes that dried up completely. Also, this study compares the relationship of each lake with the type of relief depressions (Sinkhole or Uvala), rock masses and the main negative structural lineaments. The data obtained allowed the identification of which characteristics are diagnostic for perenniality or intermittence of existing lakes in the region, as well as the grouping of existing lakes into subgroups with similar geological and morpho-structural characteristics. The most important characteristics to define the water dynamics on lakes are the evolutionary state in karst depressions and the presence of structural lineaments, in which in more evolved depressions (uvalas) the lakes tend to be intermittent and in less evolved depressions (sinkholes) the lakes tend to be perennial. Finally, the water bodies associated with structural lineaments may be the condition for the permanence of water in some depressions, mainly in lakes over non-carbonate formations existing in the region.

Evaluation of recharge estimation methods applied to fissure and karst aquifers of the Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area, Brazil

AbstractThe Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area is known worldwide as the place where the oldest human fossil in the Americas was found. Beyond its archaeological richness is speleological, faunistic and floristic richness across this remarkable karstic landscape. It is also a region with important aquifers for public and private water supply. Located in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, despite its environmental relevance, the area is characterized by increased anthropic environmental impacts. Regarding the relationship between surface water and groundwater, in order to investigate the annual input of water into the aquifers, this study aimed to estimate the annual recharge rate in the hydrological years 2017 to 2021 using three methods: the recession curve displacement method of Rorabaugh (International Association of Scientific Hydrology, 1964, 63:432–441), the recursive digital filter method by Lyne and Hollick (Institute of Engineers Australia National Conference, 1979, pp. 89–93), and the method based on water‐table fluctuation in tubular wells proposed by Healy and Cook (Hydrogeology Journal, 2002, 10(1):91–109). The average percentage of rainfall that is recharged into the aquifer, considering the overall period studied from 2017 to 2021, found with the three methods was 13%, 9% and 9%, respectively, which indicates that recharge rates within the study area are low and that higher values are observed within karst basins in comparison with basins located in pelitic zones. Overall, the methods yielded coherent values among each other and were compared with previous studies in the area. In relation to the automatized recursive digital filter method, the automatized recession curve displacement method was more adherent because it considers daily streamflow measurements. The WTF method was handy for the local recharge rate analysis and enabled an evaluation of recharge rates in each aquifer unit. Despite the similarity of the values obtained in the methods, they are likely underestimated due to the high pumping rates of groundwater. Furthermore, it is recommended to deepen the correlation between lithotype, karst geomorphology, and its dissolution processes to improve the understanding of recharge processes.

The ichthyofauna of streams and lakes of Lagoa Santa Karst, Minas Gerais state, Brazil

ABSTRACT Karsts are physiognomies with unique reliefs formed mainly by the dissolution of carbonate rocks. Much of the water used for human consumption on the planet comes from karst regions. Herein we present data obtained from an ichthyological survey conducted in lakes and streams of Lagoa Santa Karst, located at the São Francisco river basin in southeastern Brazil. From December 2019 to March 2022, 49 random samplings were carried out at 17 points distributed in four streams and eight lakes. A total of 1608 individuals, belonging to 44 species, 38 genera, 17 families, and six orders were collected. When including data from previous surveys conducted in the region, we found that the ichthyofauna of streams and lakes of Lagoa Santa Karst is composed at least by 46 species, five of these being allochtonous. Characiformes was the most representative order, comprising 22 species. The most abundant and widely distributed species was the cichlid Cichlasoma sanctifranciscense, accounting for 18.5% of the total abundance and being present in 14 sampling sites. The known distributions of the gymnotiform Eingemannia besouro was herein extended southwards.

Trace elements in sedimentary pyrite track redox and nutrient fluctuations in the Ediacaran/Cambrian Bambuí Group, Brazil

We apply trace element analysis of syn-sedimentary pyrite to track the redox and nutrient variations in the Ediacaran-Cambrian Bambuí Group of eastern Brazil. Sedimentary pyrite from black shales interleaved within the basal cap carbonate of the 635–600 Ma Pedro Leopoldo Member, deposited in an open marine setting connected to the global sea, preserve high Mo up to >200 ppm, erratic enrichment of micronutrients such as Cu, Ni, Ba, Zn and uniform enrichment of Se. This indicates the importance of oxidative continental weathering and development of an enhanced Redox Sensitive Elements (RSE) dissolved reservoir on the aftermath of the Marinoan glaciation, with atmospheric O2 levels, calculated from Se/Co ratios of pyrites, around 2.5–3.5 wt%. A shallow oxic layer over deep euxinic realms made possible by high concentrations of dissolved sulfate was probably maintained up to the late Ediacaran, during deposition of the Cloudina-bearing Lagoa Santa Member (585–540 Ma). Upsection, however, radical shifts to muted Mo concentrations and overall low micronutrient concentrations are recorded in the Serra de Santa Helena Formation, with O2 levels plunging below 1 wt%. This indicates the development of ferruginous bottom water conditions in a sulfate-poor setting, due to restriction of the basin by the encircling Brasiliano mountains that formed Gondwana. The restricted, oxygen-poor and nutrient-depleted conditions caused the demise of complex life forms and hampered the development of typical Ediacaran-Cambrian ecosystems. Basin re-connection might have occurred during deposition of the Lagoa do Jacaré Formation, with independent proxies such as local tidal facies indicating a return to more ventilated conditions in the upper Bambuí Group. Our results highlight the importance of basin restriction and connection over coupled redox-nutrients variations during the development of Ediacaran-Cambrian ecosystems.

Saxicolous vascular flora of karst outcrops: An overlooked component of Brazilian biodiversity

Rock outcrops are islands in the landscape that usually harbor a xeric saxicolous flora with endemic and endangered species. They are abundant in the Neotropical region, but floristic and ecological studies are centered on quartzite and granite-gneissic lithologies, leaving a knowledge gap regarding those of calcareous origin. It is expected that outcrops of carbonate rocks, like other rock outcrops, harbor a peculiar saxicolous flora tolerant to drought, and share communities of species associated with the distinct microhabitats. To test these assumptions, we carried out a floristic survey of the saxicolous vascular vegetation of two calcareous outcrops at Lagoa Santa region, Minas Gerais, Brazil, the historical site studied in the XIX Century by Eugen Warming – one of the fathers of Ecology. We also analysed the floristic similarity between the outcrops, among the five recognized microhabitats, crevices, exposed rock, fissures, soil islands, and epiphytic, as well as the life form spectra. Our results registered 45 families, 92 genera and 124 species, standing out Orchidaceae (14 species), Bromeliaceae (11 species), Piperaceae (10 species) and Asteraceae (8 species). There was a low similarity between the outcrops (Ij = 0.45), but the cluster analysis revealed three floristic groups inhabiting the microhabitats (exposed rock, crevices-soil islands, and fissure-epiphytic), each one sharing a similar subset of species. The distribution of the life forms into the microhabitats was homogeneous in the two outcrops, meaning that there is a correspondence between them. Three saxicolous species are threatened, but most of the inventoried species (73%) were never assessed and may be under extinction risk. Our results highlight that the saxicolous flora on outcrops of carbonate rocks deserve more attention on conservation once they have high biological importance, share communities of saxicolous plants inhabiting particular microhabitats, and face strong pressures of anthropic activities, especially mining.

Horizontal and vertical compartmentalization in the fissure and karstic aquifers of the Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area and surroundings, Minas Gerais, Brazil

The study area comprises the Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area (EPA) and its surroundings in the metropolitan region of Belo Horizonte. The complex and fragile karstic system of the Sete Lagoas Formation is the main local aquifer and an important reservoir of groundwater for human supply. Based on multidisciplinary studies, a refinement of the Hydrogeological Model of Paula (2019) was made. The study area was expanded to northwest and vertical and horizontal compartmentalization of the aquifers were proposed. The horizontal compartmentalization of the karstic aquifer was based on hydrogeological, hydrodynamic and hydrochemical aspects, where three more karstified compartments were defined. In vertical compartmentalization of the karstic and fissure aquifers, fractures (water inflows), lithological descriptions, cover width and hydraulic conductivity of wells were considered. In the limestones, the more karstified portion extends down to 30 m deep and the crystalline basement acts as an aquifuge at depths greater than 60 m. Six hydrogeologic units were proposed: Granular Aquifer (covers), Aquiclude (pelites of Serra de Santa Helena Formation), Karstic and Fissured-Karstic Aquifer (carbonates of Sete Lagoas Formation), and Fissure Aquifer and Aquifuge (crystalline basement of Belo Horizonte complex).

A new species of Megalobulimus from the early Holocene of southeastern Brazil (Gastropoda: Strophocheilidae)

A new species of megasnail, Megalobulimus diluvianus sp. nov., is herein described based on subfossil material from limestone caves in the area of Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais state, southeastern Brazil. The specimens come from a context of archaeological strata of early Holocene age. Considering the morphological features of the shell, the new species seems closely allied to the so-called “Megalobulimus bronni complex”, whose representatives inhabit the tropical to subtropical Atlantic plateau of southeastern Brazil. Megalobulimus diluvianus sp. nov. is considered to be presently extinct (substituted by M. oblongus in the stratigraphical record).

Cervidae and Tayassuidae of the Late Pleistocene from the Cuvieri Cave, Eastern Brazil

The Pleistocene of the eastern Brazilian territory is characterized by a great diversity of extinct and living mammals. The Cuvieri Cave, part of the Lagoa Santa karst complex, presents an abundant amount of osteological material dated from the Pleistocene, resulting in an important record of changes in faunal composition and environmental settings. In this cave, Cervidae are represented by two extant species: Mazama americana and Mazama cf. gouazoubira, while the Tayassuidae family is the most abundant of Pleistocene macrovertebrates and is represented by two species. One of the species was identified as Dicotyles tajacu, showing anatomical features larger than recent specimens from the same region, but similar in size to Amazonian specimens. The most common observed species could not be identified and is much larger than the living Tayassu pecari, the largest Tayassuidae in the region and to the Pleistocene deposits of Cuvieri Cave. The Cervidae species are the same observed in the Holocene, but the differences of the Tayassuidae in relation to the living specimens suggest that paleoenvironmental changes occurred after the deposition.

Study of aluminothermic slag leaching for uranium and thorium recovery

The need for energy by modern society is increasing. On the other hand, it is necessary to reduce costs and environmental impact. In this perspective, the recovery of uranium present in industrial waste from the processing of naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) appears as a possible complement to the mining stage of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle. NORM's uranium recovery can reduce environmental liabilities and mineral processing costs (especially blasting, crushing, and grinding). The industrial residue of this study, a type of aluminothermic slag, comes from the metallurgical processing of columbite (niobium and tantalum mineral) and has a content, measured by X-ray fluorescence, of 1.78% of U3O8. This content is higher, for example than those found in Lagoa Real-BA (0.2% in rock) and Santa Quitéria-CE (0.1% in rock). Another material that will be studied is ThO2, which is also present in the slag with a content, measured by X-ray fluorescence, around 3.66%. The process parameters analyzed were pH of the solution, time, granulometry and percentage of solids. The metallurgical recovery of U3O8 reached a maximum value of 71,3% with pH = 1, time of 8 hours, 65 % percentage of solids, and 200 µm of granulometry. The metallurgical recovery of ThO2 reached a maximum value of 69,7% with pH = 1, time of 8 hours, 65 % percentage of solids, and 200 µm of granulometry.

Tapiridae (Perissodactyla) in the late Pleistocene of the Cuvieri Cave, eastern Brazil

ABSTRACT The Lagoa Santa region presents an important karst complex that includes several caves with a large amount of osteological material dated from the Quaternary. Among the caves presenting a large volume of paleovertebrates in Lagoa Santa is the Cuvieri Cave, dated from the Pleistocene and Holocene. The Tapiridae family originates in the northern hemisphere and its remains are found in South America from the Pleistocene onwards. The present study describes three specimens of Tapirus sp., one subadult and two adults, found in Cuvieri Cave. The subadult specimen has a proportion similar to that of an adult Tapirus terrestris, but it is smaller in comparison to the two adults. The main difference observed in the Cuvieri specimens is that the appendicular bones are more robust and longer than those of T. terrestris, with the distal bones showing the greatest proportional difference. Regardless of the observed differences, the individuals might have probably lived in an environment quite similar to the present day one.

Genomic evidence for ancient human migration routes along South America's Atlantic coast.

An increasing body of archaeological and genomic evidence has hinted at a complex settlement process of the Americas by humans. This is especially true for South America, where unexpected ancestral signals have raised perplexing scenarios for the early migrations into different regions of the continent. Here, we present ancient human genomes from the archaeologically rich Northeast Brazil and compare them to ancient and present-day genomic data. We find a distinct relationship between ancient genomes from Northeast Brazil, Lagoa Santa, Uruguay and Panama, representing evidence for ancient migration routes along South America's Atlantic coast. To further add to the existing complexity, we also detect greater Denisovan than Neanderthal ancestry in ancient Uruguay and Panama individuals. Moreover, we find a strong Australasian signal in an ancient genome from Panama. This work sheds light on the deep demographic history of eastern South America and presents a starting point for future fine-scale investigations on the regional level.

Spatial Variability of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity in a Karstic Environmental Protection Area

Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) is a fundamental property to understand water and solute dynamics in saturated and unsaturated soils. The objective of this study is to present and assess the results of a statistical analysis of the data obtained from the determination of the permeability of a variety of soils (Argisols, Latosols, Gleysols, and Cambisols) of the Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area (State of Minas Gerais, Brazil). Software R version 4.0.4 was used for the statistical analyses. Argisol, Cambisol, and Gleysol samples yielded normal conductivity distributions at depth, with mean values of 1.16 x 10-1 m/d, 6.14 x 10-2 m/d, and 1.95 x 10-3 m/d, respectively. Regarding the log-normal distributed Latosol samples P48 and P52 and Gleysol sample P54sup, it was concluded that probability, respectively of 85.72%, 96.55%, and 47.37%, exists for hydraulic conductivity values between 0.1 x 10-1 m/d and 4 x 10-1 m/d to occur. Studies or criteria to establish Ksat values that should be really representative of the whole study area have not been found. It was preferable to characterize Ksat in terms of levels of probability of occurrence rather than values, such as the mean or median, in order to represent an area that will be subject to the same water flow control operations (irrigation and drainage practices, leaching and erosion control, etc.). Therefore, it is not appropriate to assume a normal distribution of saturated hydraulic conductivity values for areas with the characteristics of Lagoa Santa.

Morphometric affinities and direct radiocarbon dating of the Toca dos Coqueiros’ skull (Serra da Capivara, Brazil)

The biological variation of the earliest skeletons of South America has been intensely debated for the last two centuries. One of the major research constraints has been the limited number of available samples dating to the early Holocene. We here present the first direct radiocarbon-date for the early Holocene human skeleton from Toca dos Coqueiros (Serra da Capivara, Brazil), also known as “Zuzu” (8640 ± 30 BP; 9526–9681 cal years BP). We performed craniometric analyses using exclusively samples from Brazil, to revisit the sex of the skeleton, and to discuss the evolutionary processes involved in the occupation of the continent. The sex of the individual was estimated as a female when compared to late and early Holocene individuals, but as a male when compared only to the early Holocene series. We also found that Zuzu presents the strongest differences with the late Holocene Guajajara individuals, located nearby, and the strongest similarities with the early Holocene series from Lagoa Santa, attesting for solid biological affinities among early Holocene individuals from Brazil, as well as a moderate level of morphological variation among them. This suggests that the early individuals were part of the same heterogeneous lineage, possibly a different one from which late Holocene populations diverged.