Lacquer Objects Research Articles

Three Studies of Luxury Mexican Lacquer Objects from the 16th to the 19th Centuries, Analysis of Materials and Pictorial Techniques

This technical study of three Mexican lacquer objects, dating from the 16th, 18th and 19th centuries, analyses different lacquer manufacturing processes and their local characteristics through the centuries. The technical analysis of each object highlights their material and technological innovation. In addition, we describe individual stylistic characteristics of Mexican lacquer production centres, Peribán and Olinalá. Finally, we conclude with a few observations about the taste for Asian lacquer in the West, and how this impacted lacquer crafts around the world.

Study of Lacquer Objects and Their Fragments from the Orgoyton and Ilmovaya Pad Burial Grounds

This study presents the results of an investigation of the lacquer objects excavated from the Orgoyton and Ilmovaya pad burial grounds in Tzabaikalia (1st century BC–1st century CE). This study is devoted to the examination of the materials used for the lacquer coating on the objects. Polarization Microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) analyzes were applied for pigment identification. The results show a multilayer structure of the preparatory layers of the lacquer coating. Aluminosilicates, finely ground bone, possibly burnt, calcium containing minerals (chalk or lime) were found in the ground layers. Vermilion was for the red color of the top paint layer of both red-coated artifacts.

The Study of Jiajing Carved Lacquerwares: An Example in the Collection of the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art

ABSTRACT This article presents a detailed case study of a red carved lacquer dish (accession number 33–575/2) inscribed with a mark of the Jiajing period (1521–1567 CE) of the Ming dynasty, currently in the collection of the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art. Examination, analysis, and stylistic studies revealed new information regarding the material composition, manufacturing techniques, and decorative properties of the object. The analytical results were compared and contrasted with those of three other carved lacquer objects with Jiajing marks. The technical study included fluorescent light microscopy, pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry with thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation, and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy. The information from the cross-disciplinary study suggests the red carved lacquer dish 33–575/2 is unlikely to be the creation of the Ming Jiajing official production. The inscription is, therefore, likely to be a spurious inscription produced from a later period.

Characterization and quantitation study of ancient lacquer objects by NIR spectroscopy and THM-Py-GC/MS

Abstract Oils were often used as additives in lacquering process in ancient time, and the proportion of oil to lacquer is crucial for the quality of the lacquer objects. In order to quantitative analyze the proportion of oil to lacquer in the ancient lacquer objects, Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), a non-destructive method was studied. In this research, a partial least squares (PLS) model of reference samples for quantitative analysis of lacquer films was established. When evaluating the final model, factors such as correlation coefficient (R) and the root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) were considered. The final optimal results of the PLS model showed that RMSEP and correlation coefficients (R) in the calibration set were 0.112 and above 0.98, respectively, demonstrating that NIRS can be used to the quantification analysis of lacquer film. Subsequently the developed PLS model was applied to quantitatively analyze the lacquer samples from the Buddhist statue and altar of Qing dynasty, while thermally assisted hydrolysis–methylation for pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (THM-Py-GC/MS) was applied for the qualitative analysis. The results show that urushiol-based lacquer and tung oil were used and the ratios of oil in lacquer are varied in different objects for special purposes. For the first time, the proportions of oil to lacquer were revealed in the ancient lacquer objects, which is significant to enhance the knowledge about lacquering techniques in ancient times.

Comparative study of the materials and lacquering techniques of the lacquer objects from Warring States Period China

In recent decades, a number of important high quality lacquer objects have been excavated from archaeological sites dating to the Warring States Period (481-221 BC), indicating the significance of the lacquer objects in that time. In order to better understand the lacquering techniques in this period, two types of lacquer objects from the Jiuliandun tomb were studied by using thermally assisted hydrolysis–methylation pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (THM-Py-GC/MS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDS). The results revealed that a multi-layer lacquering technique was used to create the lacquer objects. Urushiol and drying oils were identified in the pigmented surface finish layer and lacquer layer, but different drying oils were identified in the ear cups and box, respectively. In addition, blood was found in the ground layer of ear cups. The results were compared with the lacquer objects from other Chu tomb, indicating that a variety of lacquering techniques were used during the Warring States period, perhaps depending on the different functions of the lacquer objects or simply reflecting different traditions.

An analysis of Chinese lacquerwares from the Bugry cemetery (Altay Krai, Russia) in the State Hermitage Museum

Chinese lacquerware from Barrow 1 of the Bugry cemetery (late third century BC) in Altay Krai (Russia) features surviving paint fragments that allow for a comparative description of lacquer compositions and to reconstruct the object type. This article presents the results of the study of the characteristics of the paints and the technologies used in producing the colorings in the lacquer. Methods used includes optical microscopy, cross-section, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR), and X-ray analysis. Object fragments allowed the reconstruction of the type of objects and comparative studies of lacquer composition. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) detected specific differences in thermal degradation of the lacquer films in the range 700 °C that clearly reflect the structure of the paint of each artifact. The multilayer coatings of the lacquer fragments were made by a special technology using a natural material that is derived from the Sap of the Chinese lacquer tree. The base material is a biopolymer of urushiol, a mixture of pyrocatechols contained in the Sap of lacquer tree (Rhus verniciflua; Chinese qi shu 漆树, English qi-lacquer, Japanese urushi). Comparison of the suite of physico-chemical analyses shows some differences with the compositions of the lacquer objects from the Noyon uul Barrows, but they also show similarities in chemical composition between the even earlier archaeological coating lacquers from the Bugry Barrows with lacquer artifacts from the burial Pazyryk in the Altai region.

The 2014-2015 excavations of the Zhouyuan Site in Baoji, Shaanxi

AbstractIn the years 2014 and 2015, the Joint Excavation Team at Zhouyuan conducted excavations of the rammed-earth foundations in the northern area of Hejia Village, a residential-burial area, a chariot-and-horse pit and a horse pit centered by the Fengchu palace complex, as well as five ponds and canals in a water reticulation system. The artifacts found in the rammed-earth foundations include golden foil objects, turquoise pieces, protoporcelain artifacts, lacquer objects, jades and cowry shells. The features found in the residential-burial area include burials, ash pits and house foundations, and these features contained artifacts such as bronzes, pottery and proto-porcelain vessels, jades, stone implements and lacquer objects. The excavations of the five ponds and canals in the water reticulation system and the previous fieldwork results showed that there was a well-planned water reticulation system consisting of the natural river system and an artificial canal system including water ponds, headwater canals, trunk canals and branch canals of different levels at the Zhouyuan Site.

Investigation of Burmese lacquer methods: Technical examination of the V&A Burmese shrine

Abstract More than one hundred samples collected from the V&A Burmese shrine were analysed to investigate the methods of manufacture of lacquer objects from Burma and the structure of the lacquer layers on this particular object, and establish whether there is any difference in the way the main body of the shrine and its decorative elements and satellite components were decorated. The differences we are looking for relate to the manufacture methods and the types of raw materials used. If found, these differences may suggest whether different workshops could have been involved. The samples were studied mainly as cross-sections by visible and ultraviolet microscopy, and additional spectroscopic techniques were performed when necessary. Duplicate samples from the same locations were sent to the Getty Conservation Institute (Los Angeles) to be analysed by pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (THM-py-GC/MS) and preliminary results by this technique are discussed here along with the microscopy results. Our findings show relevant differences in the stratigraphy of many of the shrine's parts, and using these differences we suggest a tentative grouping of the parts at the end of this article.

Investigation and analysis of Ryukyu lacquerwares decorated with wisteria vine by pyrolysis GC/MS and 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratio

Three lacquer trays decorated with wisteria vine (rattan) produced in the 18–19th century in Ryukyu Kingdom were analyzed by cross‐section, pyrolysis gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr), radioactive carbon‐14 dating, and field emission scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometry. One sample had only one red lacquer layer, and the other two samples had two layers with top red lacquer and a bottom layer of natural lacquer, respectively. The 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratios of three samples were 0.7091–0.7107, consistent with that of the Japanese mainland (<0.7110). The wood species of lacquer objects were identified as Japanese white pine, Japanese cedar, and Cunninghamia lanceolata, which grow in the Japanese islands. The carbon‐14 dating results showed that the lacquer films were about 1719–1785. In pyrolysis gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, 3‐heptylphenol (C7) and 3‐pentadecylphenol (C15) were detected in the mass chromatograms at m/z = 108 and palmitic acid and stearic acid were detected in the mass chromatograms at m/z = 60, implying that the coating material was sap collected from Toxicodendron vernicifluum lacquer tree and included a drying oil. Energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometry revealed that mainly mercury sulfide was used as red pigment in these three Ryukyu lacquerwares. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Multi-analytical approach (SEM-EDS, FTIR, Py-GC/MS) to characterize the lacquer objects from Xiongnu burial complex (Noin-Ula, Mongolia)

A multi-analytical investigation was carried out to study lacquer objects from Noin-Ula burial complex (Mongolia, the first century AD). This complex is a unique source of information about Xiongnu - one of the most ancient nomadic empires, due to the variety of findings of different origin. This study was undertaken to characterize the materials used for manufacturing and decoration of lacquer everyday life objects and works of art from the 22nd and 31st Noin-Ula barrows.Scanning electron microscopy coupled with X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDS), FT-IR spectroscopy and pyrolysis coupled with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GS/MS) and derivatisation in situ with tetramethylammonium hydroxide were used to study both organic and inorganic components of ancient lacquer wares.The components of the drying oil and urushiol were identified in the lacquer coating compositions. Diterpenoid resin and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (charcoal components) were found in some samples. Inorganic pigments of the lacquer wares were umber, iron oxides, cinnabar, orpiment and charcoal.

Measuring mercury emissions from cinnabar lacquer objects

This paper presents the results of a study on mercury emissions from Asian lacquer objects containing the red pigment cinnabar, also known as vermilion, which is mercury (II) sulfide. Initial tests for mercury vapor emission from a variety of lacquer objects were carried out using mercury- indicating powder, while more accurate measurements were made with a mercury vapor meter. The emissions were compared to American Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) guidelines. The results revealed that cinnabar lacquer objects emitted a small amount of mercury vapor, that this could accumulate in enclosed spaces, and that under certain conditions, objects and storage containers housed near cinnabar lacquers may become contaminated. Recommended methods and guidelines for storing, treating, and handling cinnabar lacquers are provided.

Searching for blood in Chinese lacquerware: zhū xiě huī 豬 血 灰

The study gives an overview of the tests and analyses undertaken in the past 20 years to establish the presence of blood in the foundation layers of Chinese lacquer artefacts and also shows the development of analytical methods over that period. When undertaking the conservation of lacquer objects it is crucial to know the type of binding medium as this influences the selection of any consolidants that may be required in the treatment. Microchemical tests to identify blood using benzidine and luminol, various chromatographic and mass spectrometric techniques and DNA analyses were assessed on selected Chinese lacquer objects, and the results gained are summarized.

A preliminary examination of urushi-based conservation options for the treatment of photodegraded Japanese lacquer using scanning electron microscopy and profilometry

Urushi is the Japanese term for the sap of the lacquer tree Toxicodendron vernicifluum, a natural crosslinking polymer that has been used for thousands of years as a durable decorative coating. Photodegradation combined with fluctuations in relative humidity cause the formation of microcracks that lead to a reduction in gloss and eventual loss of the surface. In Japan, historic lacquer objects are often conserved with urushi-based methods called urushi-gatame and suri urushi. This paper compares the potential effectiveness of these treatments for enhancing the long-term preservation of historic photodegraded Japanese lacquer surfaces. Images of naturally aged lacquer samples were made with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) before they were treated using urushi-gatame and suri urushi. Samples were then artificially aged, imaged with the SEM, and assessed using a vertical scanning interferometry profilometer. The results indicated that urushi-based treatments may be problematic for export- type lacquers with a proteinaceous ground. While further work is required, this preliminary study suggests that, excluding the formation of new microcracking, three dilute urushi applications may represent the minimum urushi-based treatment required to enhance the long-term preservation of a photodegraded lacquer surface significantly.

Bending Asian lacquer in eighteenth-century Paris: New discoveries

Rococo furniture decorated with fragments of Asian lacquer was highly fashionable in eighteenth-century France. The furniture's curvilinear designs forced cabinetmakers to manipulate flat lacquer elements so that they could be applied to a curved carcase. By removing material from the rear of lacquered wooden panels, they produced sheets of lacquered ‘veneer’ with enough flexibility to allow careful bending. Their application was usually limited to substrates that were straight or curved along only one axis. New evidence has revealed that cabinetmakers experimented with techniques allowing the use of lacquer veneer for decorating bombé furniture designs, characterized by curvatures along multiple axes. This article presents examples showing such strategies, found on a pair of corner cabinets from the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles (78.DA.119.1–2) and a commode from the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Netherlands (BK-16652). In all three instances, the bombé forms are covered with Chinese lacquer veneer harvested from different types of export lacquer objects. X-radiography showed that segments of the veneer were removed to facilitate its compound bending, effectively tailoring it to the curved substrate. In addition, cross-sections from samples of the corner cabinets show that the original substrate of the Chinese lacquer is leather. The cutting techniques differ on all three objects, indicating that cabinetmakers were still searching for the most effective methods.

Measuring mercury emissions from cinnabar lacquer objects

This paper presents the results of a study on mercury emissions from Asian lacquer objects containing the red pigment cinnabar, also known as vermilion, which is mercury (II) sulfide. Initial tests for mercury vapor emission from a variety of lacquer objects were carried out using mercury- indicating powder, while more accurate measurements were made with a mercury vapor meter. The emissions were compared to American Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) guidelines. The results revealed that cinnabar lacquer objects emitted a small amount of mercury vapor, that this could accumulate in enclosed spaces, and that under certain conditions, objects and storage containers housed near cinnabar lacquers may become contaminated. Recommended methods and guidelines for storing, treating, and handling cinnabar lacquers are provided.

Analytical characterization of lacquer objects excavated from a Chu tomb in China

This work presents the results of an investigation of the lacquer objects excavated from a Chu tomb in China (Warring States, 481–221 BC). This study is engaged in the examination of the methods and the materials used for the urushi coating on the objects. X-Ray fluorescence and Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive Using X-Ray (SEM/EDX) analyses were applied for the pigment identification. The results show that vermilion was for the red colour, while carbon black was for the black colour. Pyrolysis gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) was applied for the characterization of the lacquer resulting that it is based on urushi. The possibility to classify the drying oil (tung or linseed oil) present in the lacquer is highlighted and discussed in this paper. Py-GC/MS with in-situ hydrolysis and methylation reagent tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) were performed on reference materials of linseed oil and tung oil as well as on the lacquer object samples. The results show that it is possible to unambiguously identify the drying oil, in our case, linseed oil was identified to retard the rate of hardening.

Influence of Blackness on Visual Impression of Color Images

Two experiments, using color images of Japanese lacquer objects, investigated the relation between the strength of blackness and the visual and artistic impression of digital color images presented on a display. The first experiment determined the mean RGB values of black surface areas in the test stimuli where observers began to perceive the areas as “black”, and the mean RGB values where observers perceived the areas “really black”. Results indicate that to perceive a “really black” surface, RGB values should be lower than those of the original image in some pictures. The second experiment investigated, how, and to what degree the RGB values of black areas affect the visual impression of an artistic picture. Three factors, “high-quality axis”, “mysterious axis”, and “feeling of material axis”, were extracted by factor analysis. Results indicate that the Art students seem to be more sensitive in the evaluations along the “high-quality axis” and “mysterious axis” than the Engineering students are, while the opposite tendency is observed in the evaluation along the “feeling of material axis”.

Methods and Materials for Filling Losses on Lacquer Objects

Methods and Materials for Filling Losses on Lacquer Objects

Methods and Materials for Filling Losses on Lacquer Objects

Whether the infilling of losses on lacquer is done for purely structural or aesthetic reasons, appropriate methods and materials vary widely. Because the materials of lacquer itself differ from East to West, the article is divided into two parts: fills for Asian lacquer and fills for Western lacquer.Over the past few centuries many materials have been used to fill losses in lacquer: Asian lacquer, wax, polyester, poly (vinyl acetate), epoxy, gesso, acrylic paints, acrylic resins, formulations of synthetic polymers such as Polycite, as well as the traditional materials of shellac and other natural resins. The benefits and disadvantages of each are outlined. Bibliographic references from numerous publications on the subject have been collected for this article.

Innovations techniques et diversification des commandes : l'artisanat du laque en Chine aux Ve-IVe siècles avant J.-C.

Tomb No. 1 at Leigudun, Suizhou, in Hubei province, where more than two hundred lacquer pieces have been excavated, provides an excellent example of the existing techniques during the 5th century B.C.: lacquer could be applied on wood as well as on metal, leather and silk threads. But most of the pieces were carved in a single wood block or were composed of many carved wood blocks which were joined together with the tenon and mortise method. During the fourth century B.C., various lacquer techniques were created while the existing techniques improved considerably. More efficient tools allow wood to be cut in very thin sheets and to be curved. It becomes possible to make light cylindrical vessels or containers, which in some cases are strengthened with metal mounts. Another technique which is called jiazhu consists of making a core with cloth on which many layers of lacquer possibly mixed with charcoal or mud powder are applied. For chemical and physiological reasons, only a few pigments can be mixed with lacquer. As a result, lacquer objects are mostly decorated in black and red (cinnabar), and for some pieces in yellow and gold. But, during the 4th century B.C., the craftmen succeeded in using other pigments mixed with glue and lacquer. This fact is documented by a few luxurious pieces which apparently are not of pure funerary use. The archaeological material from the hundreds of tombs discovered in the area of the capital of Chu, near Jiangling, provides an excellent account of the Chu lacquer production until the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. It reveals that from the 4th century B.C. onwards, lacquerware became an exceptional decorative art which could in many cases compete with major arts like painting for example.