L2 Users Of English Research Articles

Developing advanced citation skills: A mixed-methods approach to corpus technology training for novice researchers

In contrast with most existing corpus technology (CT) studies which focus primarily on general vocabulary and grammar learning, this study investigates the effectiveness of CT in addressing challenges encountered by novice researchers in improving an advanced linguistic skill in EAP writing: using reporting verbs to express rhetorical functions in citations in literature reviews. An eight-week CT training programme featuring a practical framework of the rhetorical functions of citations and utilising the Parallel EAP Corpora was implemented for 50 Chinese postgraduate students who were L2 English users. A mixed-methods approach was adopted. Paired-samples t-tests demonstrated statistically significant improvement with medium effect sizes in the frequency and diversity of reporting verb usage in citations, as well as in the complexity of expressing rhetorical functions of citations. These findings were further corroborated by corpus-aided descriptive statistical and textual analyses. Questionnaire data and interviews further revealed students' positive evaluations towards the training informed by the Parallel EAP Corpora, which facilitated participants' learning in various ways. These findings hold substantial value for EAP pedagogy, indicating that the incorporation of pedagogically sound CT training can significantly improve novice researchers’ development of academic discourse through nuanced citation practices and advanced rhetorical strategies for composing literature reviews.

L2 cognitive construal and morphosyntactic acquisition of pseudo-passive constructions

Abstract Discussion of the theoretical underpinning of pseudo-passive constructions abounds in generative linguistics and comparative typology. However, the cognitive construal of and morphosyntactic acquisition of (un)grammatical English pseudo-passive constructions by Chinese-speaking L2-English users with different proficiency levels have never been investigated. It is worth examining whether proficiency level modulates constructional acceptability and cognitive construal, which would allow us to infer L2-English users’ morphosyntactic acquisition stages of pseudo-passive constructions. To fill this research gap, the study recruited 120 L2-English speakers with different levels of proficiency and 40 native English speakers to complete a grammaticality judgment test with an acceptance judgment scale from −2 to 2 for 40 ungrammatical pseudo-passive sentences and 40 fillers. Proficiency level significantly correlates with a firmer rejection of ungrammatical pseudo-passive sentences and cognitive construal which is more target-like. Significantly asymmetrical acceptance levels between two types of target ungrammatical constructions are also revealed for low (p = 0.002) and medium proficiency (p = 0.000) groups, demonstrating the type effect on grammaticality judgment and morphosyntactic acquisition.

A frequency-based exploratory study of word combinations by EFL learners towards adjective-noun collocations

The mastery of formulaic sequences by language learners is considered to be crucial since it enables them to accomplish the basic communicative requirements (Wray, 2002) of target language use. Of all the formulaic sequences, the mastery of collocations is known to have an enormous impact on learners’ ability to move beyond the intermediate level. This data-driven study explores the word combinations (both conventional and unconventional L2 strings) of L2 users of English. Specifically, the adjective-noun combinations in an L2 corpus (TUWE) were explored to find the potential L2 strings functioning as unconventional collocations. Then, these L2 strings were compared with the adjective-noun collocations in the LOCNESS corpus to determine whether the choices made by L2 learners differed from those of L1 users. The findings show that the spectrum of the L2 word combinations was broader in comparison with LOCNESS. The results suggest that the L2 learners produced a higher number of unconventional collocations than conventional collocations matching with the L1. The L2 strings support that the use of collocations can be rather problematic for learners of English however advanced they are. Some pedagogical implications of the findings for explicit collocation and vocabulary teaching are discussed.

The Effectiveness of OpenAI GPT-Generated Definitions Versus Definitions from an English Learners’ Dictionary in a Lexically Orientated Reading Task

Abstract In metalexicographical research, experts have judged the performance of technologies such as OpenAI Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT) in lexicographic production tasks as promising yet inferior to human lexicographers. It remains unclear whether this perceived inferiority limits the effectiveness of AI-generated lexicography in resolving practical language doubts. Accordingly, this study compares the effectiveness of AI-generated definitions to those from the Macmillan English Dictionary (MED) in resolving vocabulary doubts in a multiple-choice reading task designed to test lexical knowledge. It involves 43 L2 English users in the third year of an English studies degree at a Spanish university. Students provided with MED definitions performed better on the reading task than those without access to definitions. However, there was no significant difference between the performance of students with either MED definitions or without definitions altogether, and those provided with AI-definitions. The implications of these findings are discussed along with avenues for further research.

Exploring the relationship of working memory to the temporal distribution of pausing and revision behaviors during L2 writing

AbstractThis study examined the extent to which L2 writers with varied working memory display differential pausing and revision behaviors at different periods during writing. The participants were 30 advanced Chinese L2 users of English, who wrote an argumentative essay. While composing, participants’ keystrokes and eye-gaze movements were recorded to capture their pausing, revision, and eye-gaze behaviors. The working memory battery included tests of phonological and visual short-term memory and executive functions. We divided the writing process into five equal periods. The results revealed that participants’ pausing and revision patterns were consistent with previous findings that planning, linguistic encoding, and monitoring processes dominate the initial, middle, and later composing periods, respectively. Various working memory components had differential effects on pausing depending on period, largely reflecting the predictions of Kellogg’s (1996, 2001) model. However, we identified no differences in the temporal distribution of revision behaviors contingent on working memory.

The influence of musical abilities on the processing of second language prosody: An eye-tracking study

The perception of speech prosody in a second language (L2) remains challenging even for proficient L2 users. Eye-tracking evidence indicates that Dutch listeners show difficulty in the processing of pitch accents that signal a contrast (i.e., contrastive focus) in English, whereas native English listeners use this cue in perception to anticipate upcoming information [Ge et al., Appl. Psycholinguist. 42, 1057–1088 (2021)]. Prosody perception abilities in foreign languages have been associated with individual differences in musical abilities [Jansen et al., Speech Prosody, 713–717 (2022)]. We investigated whether musical abilities influenced the processing of prosodic cues by 45 Dutch adult L2 English users, using a visual-world eye-tracking paradigm. Participants listened to sentences with pitch accent cues to contrastive focus on different words, while viewing pictures showing objects and characters mentioned. We investigated to what extent participants showed anticipatory fixations on the image reflecting the alternative of the contrast, after hearing the accented word. We measured participants’ music perception abilities with a standardised test and analysed its influence on anticipatory fixations. Initial analyses indicate that individuals with stronger musical abilities show more anticipation. This suggests that having stronger perceptual resources underlying both music and speech processing [Patel, Front. Psychol. 2, 142 (2011)] may benefit L2 prosody perception.

A multi-faceted evaluation of the impact on students of an Australian university-wide academic language development program

In response to the ongoing need to support all students’ academic language development throughout their university studies, the academic language and learning team at an Australian university has established the Academic Language Development (ALD) program. This program screens all commencing students at the university and offers an innovative whole-of-institution approach to discipline-specific language development. The purpose of this paper is to report on a large-scale, long-term and multi-faceted evaluation of the ALD program, considering the impact of attending compulsory language development tutorials on 3922 students, the majority of whom were L2 users of English. Surveys have been carried out and data collected on academic language development, academic outcomes, student perceptions of their confidence, and other gains from attending the tutorials. A particular focus of this analysis is on the affective aspects of language development. In addition to developing academic language proficiency, the findings show that students benefited in multiple ways from the ALD program. Key themes emerged from the data around confidence, agency, and social connections, as well as a greater ability to navigate the university landscape. This paper offers an innovative approach to the evaluation of language programs that will be relevant to those teaching and researching linguistically diverse cohorts across faculties in higher education.

Comprehending implied meaning

AbstractThis study investigated the extent to which proficiency, length of residence, and intensity of interaction in a target language affect L2 learners’ pragmatic ability in comprehending conversational implicature and indirect speech acts. 68 participants, 38 L1 English and 30 L2 English users, completed two measures: a pragmatic listening test measuring implied meaning comprehension and a language contact profile survey identifying length of residence and intensity of L2 interaction. The standard multiple regression analysis revealed a significant relationship between implied meaning comprehension and learners’ proficiency, length of residence, and intensity of interaction. Together, these factors explained a significant amount of the variance in learners’ overall comprehension ability, with proficiency being the strongest predictor, followed by intensity of interaction, then length of residence. Findings also showed that while it was more challenging for the less proficient learners to comprehend conversational implicature than indirect speech acts, there was no significant difference between the two types for the higher proficiency group. Further analysis of the L2 interaction types indicated a significant, moderate relationship between the time spent speaking and learners’ implied meaning comprehension. These findings offer pedagogical and methodological implications for L2 pragmatic development.

Exploring knowledge of transparent and non-transparent multi-word phrases among L2 English learners living in an Anglophone setting

Skillful use of figurative phrases is often a benchmark for advanced or “native-like” English. Despite being highly prevalent, non-compositional phrases present a disproportionate challenge for L2 English users (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009; Carrol & Conklin, 2017); this asymmetrical challenge appears to decrease with increased exposure and linguistic proficiency (Beck & Weber, 2016; Macias & Schmitt, 2017). This study administered an electronic assessment of knowledge of British English verb + object multi-word phrases of varying transparency to identify knowledge differences between intermediate and advanced L2 learners and monolinguals and to quantify the effect of non-transparency. Eighty-one adults participated: 61 U.K.-based L2 English users (37 intermediate; 25 advanced) and 19 British English monolinguals. A 3x3 ANOVA revealed significant differences between intermediate and advanced L2 users; advanced L2 users living in the U.K. differed significantly from monolinguals in knowledge of non-transparent phrases. Findings demonstrated an effect of non-transparency, such that it was significantly more challenging for learners to produce non-transparent phrases than comparably frequent transparent phrases. Implications for L2 English learners in Anglophone and in non-Anglophone settings are discussed.

Evaluation of aspiration problems in L2 English pronunciation employing machine learning

The approach proposed in this study includes methods specifically dedicated to the detection of allophonic variation in English. This study aims to find an efficient method for automatic evaluation of aspiration in the case of Polish second-language (L2) English speakers' pronunciation when whole words are analyzed instead of particular allophones extracted from words. Sample words including aspirated and unaspirated allophones were prepared by experts in English phonetics and phonology. The datasets created include recordings of words pronounced by nine native English speakers of standard southern British accent and 20 Polish L2 English users. Complete unedited words are treated as input data for feature extraction and classification algorithms such as k-nearest neighbors, naive Bayes method, long-short term memory, and convolutional neural network (CNN). Various signal representations, including low-level audio features, the so-called mid-term and feature trajectory, and spectrograms, are tested in the context of their usability for the detection of aspiration. The results obtained show high potential for an automated evaluation of pronunciation focused on a particular phonological feature (aspiration) when classifiers analyze whole words. Additionally, CNN returns satisfying results for the automated classification of words containing aspirated and unaspirated allophones produced by Polish L2 speakers.

Reading Rate of Academic English Texts: Comparing L1 and Advanced L2 Users in Different Language Environments

Slower reading in a second language (L2) has been attributed to lower proficiency and/or to slower language processing. This study investigates the role of linguistic context in L1 and L2 academic reading speed among 295 undergraduate Psychology students who all read English language texts at university. The aim was to compare academic reading among students in a predominantly English-speaking environment (the UK) with those in a parallel language context where both English and the local language are used in teaching (Norway). Three groups were tested: Norwegian students in Norway, and both L1 and L2 English-users in the UK. Participants completed a timed academic reading task, followed by comprehension questions. Although all three groups achieved similar mean scores on the comprehension questions, the L1 and L2 English-speaking students in the UK read the text significantly faster than the Norwegian students. There was no significant difference between reading times for the L1 and L2 readers in the UK, indicating that the difference was not simply a consequence of L2 reading. Additionally, in contrast to previous research on groups with lower L2 proficiency, this study found no significant association between reported extramural English exposure and reading speed in either L2 group. The results indicate that advanced L2 readers in a parallel language environment may need more time to read academic texts in L2 compared to L1 readers and L2 readers in an immersion context, which has implications for the time and support needed by these students.

Cross-linguistic collocational networks in the L1 Turkish–L2 English mental lexicon

According to the Collocational Priming Theory, every word is primed to co-occur with particular other related words and priming could be regarded as the source of our creative language system. Previous research has shown evidence of collocational priming in both L1 and L2 users of English and has indicated that L2 processing is influenced by L1 collocations. This study attempts to further our understanding of the relationship between first and second language collocations through the paradigm of cross-linguistic priming. That is, it will test the extent to which individual words in one language prime recognition of those words’ collocates in the other language. Results suggest a complex picture of both cross-linguistic priming and cross-linguistic inhibition, operating differently across different part of speech combinations. They also suggest important methodological influences which future research will need to investigate. Findings are discussed in the light of the current bilingual mental lexicon models and some implications are drawn based on the observed collocational networks in the L1 Turkish–L2 English bilingual mental lexicon.

DISCOURSE REFLEXIVITY IN WRITTEN ACADEMIC ENGLISH AS LINGUA FRANCA: CODE GLOSSES IN RESEARCH ARTICLES

There is probably no doubt that English is a lingua franca of academia nowadays. Previous research has shown that one of the tendencies observed in academic English as Lingua Franca (ELF) speech is enhanced explicitness (Mauranen 2012). A common manifestations of explicitation is discourse reflexivity (Mauranen 2017), making discourse organisation more visible and enhancing the clarity in the contexts where interlocutors do not share a common linguistic and/or cultural background. Drawing on these findings this paper aims to investigate reflexive phenomena in written academic ELF, namely in the SciELF corpus. The corpus consists of research articles written by L2 users of English, which have not undergone any professional proofreading. The paper focuses on one reflexive category, code glosses, which “supply additional information by rephrasing, explaining or elaborating what has been said” (Hyland 2005: 52). The findings are compared with the corpus of published research articles written by Anglophone writers, which has been designed on the basis of SciELF. The results reveal significant differences in the frequency and functions of several code glosses, but at the same time show the importance of discourse reflexivity in both corpora.

Holding up one’s end of the conversation in spoken English

AbstractThis study investigates the use of lexical backchannels in the discourse of L2 English users sitting Trinity College London’s Graded Examinations in Spoken English (GESE). It is based on theTrinity Lancaster Corpus Sampleand explores the language produced during the Discussion, Conversation and Interactive tasks of the language examinations by L2 English users from Chinese, Indian and Italian linguistic backgrounds, whose proficiency ranges from the B2 to C2 levels (i.e. high intermediate, advanced, expert) of the CEFR. The findings suggest that the L2 users with an Italian background and to a lesser extent those with a Chinese background often supported their examiners’ turns with items conveying uncertainty, while those with an Indian background with items of certainty. Furthermore, the L1 Chinese speakers used lexical backchannels the most, especially those expressing surprise or request for confirmation, while the speakers from India used them the least. Implications for the assessment of oral proficiency are discussed.

EXPLORING SECOND LANGUAGE WRITERS’ PAUSING AND REVISION BEHAVIORS

AbstractThis study investigated the cognitive processes underlying pauses at different textual locations (e.g., within/between words) and various levels of revision (e.g., below word/clause). We used stimulated recall, keystroke logging, and eye-tracking methodology in combination to examine pausing and revision behaviors. Thirty advanced Chinese L2 users of English performed a version of the IELTS Academic Writing Task 2. During the writing task, participants’ key strokes were logged, and their eye movements were recorded. Immediately after the writing task, 12 participants also took part in a stimulated recall interview. The results revealed that, when participants paused at larger textual units, they were more likely to look back in the text and engage in higher-order writing processes. In contrast, during pauses at lower textual units, they tended to view areas closer to the inscription point and engage in lower-order writing processes. Prior to making a revision, participants most frequently had viewed the text that they subsequently revised or their eye gazes had been off-screen. Revisions focused more on language- than content-related issues, but there was a smaller difference in the number of language- and content-focused stimulated recall comments when larger textual units were revised.

Variations in the use of discourse markers by L1 and L2 English users

This study adopts a functional approach to investigate specific discourse markers employed by L1 English and L2 English users in non-native English speaking contexts. Twenty-four academic essays were voluntarily submitted by the students for analysis. Primarily, Fraser’s (2009) taxonomy was used to identify discourse markers and to know its use in writing academic essays. Findings indicate that there were notable differences between L1 and L2 users in using discourse markers, specifically in its frequency and functions. Accordingly, L1 English users’ writings frequently displayed elaborative markers followed by temporal, inferential, and cons transitive discourses. Meanwhile, L2 English users’ writings showed the overuse of certain discourse types such as temporal and inferential markers. In the coding of data, it was also revealed the L2 users’ overused of discourse markers resulted in incoherent texts. Language teachers may need to raise awareness of how discourse markers can be used variably in writing academic essays.

Strategic construal of in and out in English particle verbs (PVs)

Author/s
 Renata GeldUniversity of Zagreb, CroatiaRicardo MaldonadoUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
 
 ABSTRACT
 The central aim of this work is to describe the strategic construal of in and out in English particle verbs. The term strategic construal assumes the following: 1) exploration of strategic thinking in L2 learning and processing, and 2) exploration of dynamic and subjective construction of meaning pertaining to the human ability to understand and portray the same situation in alternate ways (Langacker 1987). In other words, the paper relies on two theoretical paradigms with self-evident commonalities – a strong link between language and cognition, and the insistence on the individual and subjective nature of meaning construction. The aim was to investigate whether L2 users of English are aware of the symbolic nature of language when dealing with highly schematic linguistic categories. Our hypotheses were that construal of in and out is comparable to their cognitive linguistic description in English as L1 and that it shows a cognitively motivated path from the topological to the aspectual. Both hypotheses have been confirmed.

The relationship between English proficiency and humour appreciation among English L1 users and Chinese L2 users of English

AbstractHumour appreciation involves split second detection and resolution of cultural and pragmatic incongruities. Second language (L2) users may need more time and effort to understand and appreciate L2 humour. Previous studies have mostly used decontextualized verbal jokes and reported a linear relationship between L2 proficiency and humour appreciation. The present study strives for more ecological validity by using audiovisual-based, multimodal humorous stimuli. A total of 272 Chinese L2 users of English and 94 English L1 users rated the funniness and the ease of understanding of two short video extracts and then completed an English vocabulary size test, LexTALE. The findings suggest that L2 users need to reach a certain threshold in L2 linguistic, pragmatic and sociocultural knowledge before a positive linear relationship emerges between proficiency and appreciation of multimodal humorous stimuli. Also, advanced L2 users demonstrated similarities with English L1 users in humour processing.

Effects of Listeners’ Communicative Experiences in Thai English on the Intelligibility of Thai English

Intelligibility of second language (L2) English has become an important goal in English pronunciation teaching. However, intelligibility research primarily focused on L2 English users and L2 production features; only a handful of studies have examined other effects on the intelligibility of L2 English. In line with the three-part model of intelligibility (Munro, 2008), this study focuses on listener factors by examining how listener experience with Thai English affects the actual understanding of Thai English utterances. Study participants were 40 students at a U. S. university. Data were collected through a questionnaire and a 38-item intelligibility test. While controlling for participants’ English proficiency, Analysis of Covariance confirmed that participants with experience in Thai English outperformed those with no experience in Thai English, as measured by the Thai English intelligibility task. The findings suggest that listeners’ communicative experiences in an L2 English variety improves the intelligibility of that English variety regardless of the listeners’ first languages. Implications for research and pronunciation pedagogy are discussed.

Questioning as advice resistance: writing tutorial interactions with L2 writers

While much research on writing tutorial interactions with second language (L2) writers has focused on the tutor’s instructional practices, little attention has been given to the ways in which the tutee responds to them. Based on 6 h of video-recordings from 8 tutoring sessions between 6 tutors (L1 users of English) and 8 tutees (L2 users of English), this conversation analytic study examines how L2 writers resist their tutors’ advice. In particular, the study focuses on the tutee’s use of questioning as advice resistance and specifies two questioning practices: (1) asking a reversed polarity question and (2) proposing an alternative candidate revision. The analyses show that the tutee’s advice-resisting question initiates the expansion of the sequence and affords the participants an opportunity to discuss the rationale behind the advice, revise the advice, or adopt the alternative way of revision. Overall, the present study adds to the existing body of research on L2 writing tutorial interactions by investigating an interactional practice of advice resistance and by showing various ways in which the participants engage in doing pedagogy as they co-construct the advice that reflects the tutee’s knowledge and concern in the given moment.