Development Of L2 Proficiency Research Articles

Tapping into the Pedagogical Potential of infinigoChatIC: Evidence from iWrite Scoring and Comments and Lu & Ai’s Linguistic Complexity Analyzer

ChatGPT has drawn rapid interest among linguists and language teachers, with academics and industries rushing to tap into its potential. Yet the pedagogical potential of ChatGPT for L2 English writing remains to be further explored academically. This study aims to examine the effects of ChatGPT, or one of its Chinese versions called infinigoChatIC, in improving the quality of L2 writing and in facilitating the development of L2 proficiency among some postgraduate students learning an English reading and writing course in a prestigious university in Southwest China. Specifically, the main research questions focus on how infinigoChatIC-polished L2 English writings perform in comparison to L2 learner writings, and how the improvement of English writing is reflected in the changes of lexical and syntactic complexity, as evidenced by measured data and its pedagogical significance. A set of 24 English writings are collected as part of regular homework assignments, then this set of English writing is polished by the teacher researcher in the infinigoChatIC dialogue box with the prompt “please correct grammatical errors in the following English text so that it is grammatically accurate.” These two sets of writings are scored in iWrite automatic scoring system and then analyzed in Lu & Ai’s web-interfaced linguistic complexity analyzer. The study finds that infinigoChatIC can effectively improve the quality of L2 English writing, with lexical complexity vastly improved and yet surprisingly overall syntactic complexity slightly reduced. Pedagogical implications are discussed.

The relationship between social network typology, L2 proficiency growth, and curriculum design in university study abroad

AbstractThis study utilizes social network analysis to characterize a typology of study abroad sojourner experience, detailing the relationship of social experience types to second language (L2) proficiency growth and study abroad program design. In contrast with previous research, the study performs a quantitative analysis of structural and compositional network features to identify a typology of social networks. Participants were 30 L2 Spanish learners from five US-based semester-long university study abroad programs in Spain. Social network data were collected using a social network questionnaire, while L2 development was measured through an elicited imitation task. Results identify four prominent social network patterns, characterized by varying levels of Spanish language use, emotional proximity to contacts, frequency of interaction, contact status as program peer or host community member, and network cohesion. L2 proficiency development was significantly affected by these patterns, which were shaped by the contrasting curricular models of study abroad programs.

L2 Motivational Self System, International Posture and the Sustainable Development of L2 Proficiency in the COVID-19 Era: A Case of English Majors in China

The L2 motivation self system (L2MSS) has been extensively researched in a variety of contexts, but few studies have delved into its relationship with international posture and the sustainable development of L2 proficiency in the COVID-19 era. To address this issue, we surveyed 156 English majors in China and analyzed their response data with structural equation modelling. The results show that the ideal L2 self positively predicts the L2 learning experience, while the ought-to L2 self has a negative predictive power. The international posture exerts a positive influence on the ideal L2 self and L2 experience, and a negative insignificant influence on the ought-to L2 self. The L2 experience and ideal L2 self have a positive influence on L2 proficiency, while the ought-to L2 self has a negative influence. Our results not only contribute to the generalizability of L2MSS but also deepen the understanding of possible contextual variations of L2 motivation, as well as the uniqueness in the sustainable development of English majors in China during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Using the Relative Entropy of Linguistic Complexity to Assess L2 Language Proficiency Development.

This study applies relative entropy in naturalistic large-scale corpus to calculate the difference among L2 (second language) learners at different levels. We chose lemma, token, POS-trigram, conjunction to represent lexicon and grammar to detect the patterns of language proficiency development among different L2 groups using relative entropy. The results show that information distribution discrimination regarding lexical and grammatical differences continues to increase from L2 learners at a lower level to those at a higher level. This result is consistent with the assumption that in the course of second language acquisition, L2 learners develop towards a more complex and diverse use of language. Meanwhile, this study uses the statistics method of time series to process the data on L2 differences yielded by traditional frequency-based methods processing the same L2 corpus to compare with the results of relative entropy. However, the results from the traditional methods rarely show regularity. As compared to the algorithms in traditional approaches, relative entropy performs much better in detecting L2 proficiency development. In this sense, we have developed an effective and practical algorithm for stably detecting and predicting the developments in L2 learners’ language proficiency.

An examination of prosody and second language sentence processing through pause insertion

Objectives: Research on second language (L2) sentence comprehension often has examined reliance on semantic and syntactic information but has left aside for the most part the role of prosodic cues. In the present study, we compare less- and more-proficient L2 learners’ integration of prosody and syntax structure during auditory L2 sentence comprehension. Design: Two group Chinese learners of L2 English learners (A2 and C1 levels) participated in an auditory comprehension task, which included sentences that had artificial pauses inserted either between or within syntactic boundaries. After hearing each sentence, learners were asked to judge the translation as ‘identical’ or ‘not identical’ on the keyboard. Data Analysis: We conducted t-tests and an analysis of variance to examine prosodic effects among the two learner groups. Findings: The results showed that both A2 and C1 learners were sensitive to pauses. However, the direction and magnitude of this sensitivity was significantly different for the two groups. A2 learners were faster to respond to auditory sentences in which a brief pause was placed within syntactic phrases. Contrarily, C1 learners responded faster when the brief pause was placed between syntactic phrases. Originality: Unique to the present study is the inclusion of the pause-insertion paradigm to examine the role of prosody in L2 auditory sentence processing. Implications: The results imply that the two groups of learners do not rely on prosodic and syntactic cues in the same manner when processing L2 sentences. We argue that the processing mechanisms involved in L2 sentence comprehension evolve hand-in-hand with L2 proficiency development. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research.

Young learners’ L2 English after the onset of instruction: longitudinal development of L2 proficiency and the role of individual differences

AbstractIn this study we investigated 107 young learners’ L2 English receptive vocabulary knowledge and speaking skills at two points in time, before and after the onset of instruction. We also investigated the role of several individual difference variables: out-of-school exposure to English, length of instruction, analytic reasoning ability, working memory, L1 vocabulary knowledge and prior L2 knowledge. Results show that L2 English proficiency in receptive vocabulary knowledge and speaking skills greatly improved over time and that the effects of schooling and contextual learning are largely additive. The main predictor of the children's proficiency at time 2 was their L2 prior knowledge, which they had acquired through contextual language learning before getting formal education. When considering the other variables that predicted L2 proficiency, the contribution of internal variables (L1 vocabulary size and working memory) was considerably smaller than that of external variables (out-of-school exposure and length of instruction).

Overall L2 proficiency maintenance and development among returning ERASMUS study abroad participants

Abstract This study examines the sustainability of gains in overall English proficiency made by 81 German students on ERASMUS study abroad placements in the UK (lasting one term or one academic year) following their return to their home country. Students were tracked using C-tests and questionnaires from pre-study abroad up until nine months post-return. Their development was compared with that of 25 peers who applied for ERASMUS placements, but continued studying at home. The analysis presented focuses on the post-return phase and includes factors associated with individual differences in L2 proficiency development post-return, self-perceived L2 skills development, and returnees’ perceived needs regarding further language classes. Results show that students tended to sustain gains in overall L2 proficiency made during study abroad. L2 proficiency level achieved by the end of study abroad, self-efficacy in using the L2 in social interactions, and majoring in English were all positively associated with post-return L2 development.

Comparing Error Frequencies in First Year ESL Students

There has been a considerable amount of research on the role of errors in ESL students’ writing development. Recent studies generally investigated students’ improvement in writing after a relatively short duration of exposure to an English course. The purpose of the current study is to analyse the error frequencies in written discourse made by one group of diploma level students at a Malaysian university throughout their first year of studies. Two writing samples were obtained from each student based on the writing assessments during their first two semesters of English core courses. The samples were keyed in into a corpus database and an analysis of error frequencies was conducted on each sample. By comparing errors made by the same students throughout their first year of study, this error frequency provides one important way to determine if there are any changes occurred in their written discourse during the chosen period of time. Results reported in this study revealed no significant changes in errors made by the same students in their subsequent written discourse. Findings are discussed in relation to the students’ L2 proficiency development and the nature of their English learning experience.

L2 development in an intensive Study Abroad EAP context

The current study's main aim was to examine development of L2 proficiency over a short period of time by adopting an analytic framework that balances out the strengths and limitations of the existing Complexity, Accuracy, Lexis and Fluency (CALF) framework of linguistic measurement. CALF indices and discourse markers were used to analyse development of proficiency among participants on an intensive EAP course in a Study Abroad context. To investigate the differential rates of development in two different task types, gains in various aspects of proficiency were examined. The results suggest that some CALF measures adequately demonstrate L2 development over a one-month period. Discourse markers provide evidence of L2 development beyond CALF, and add a new dimension to investigating and measuring L2 development. The differences in L2 development indicated in monologic and dialogic performances imply that specific measures of analysis are more suitable to characterize development in different task types.

THE ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH L2 BY IMMIGRANT CHILDREN: EAL AND INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION IN MULTILINGUAL IRELAND

Since the 1990s, Ireland has experienced considerable immigration. Currently, 12% of its schoolchildren come from immigrant backgrounds. The majority of these children learn English as a second (additional) language (ESL/EAL). The Irish Department of Education and Skills (DES) provides a programme of English language support for young ESL learners. To guide this programme, English Language Proficiency Benchmarks were developed by Integrate Ireland Language and Training (IILT), a campus company of Trinity College, Dublin. IILT produced two sets of context-appropriate ‘Benchmarks’, for primary and secondary education, derived from the Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). This paper focuses on English L2 acquisition in Irish primary schools. It reports on how the primary level Benchmarks describe L2 proficiency development across CEFR levels A1, A2 and B1 in a manner sensitive to age/cognitive stage and curriculum requirements. It discusses assessment resources based on these Benchmarks – a version of the European Language Portfolio (IILT 2004) and the Primary School Assessment Kit (DES 2007). These tools enable assessment of and assessment for learning and promote learner autonomy. Research conducted by the author of this paper (published in 2014) into the relation between learning outcomes expressed in the Benchmarks and immigrant children’s English L2 acquisition is presented. It reports on mixed-methods analysis of data from a longitudinal study of L2 acquisition involving 18 children, aged four to ten years, from ten language backgrounds (including Croatian and Serbian). The children’s acquisition of English oral and literacy skills indicate that the Benchmarks appropriately describe L2 proficiency development. Individual and interactional influences on L2 acquisition and their pedagogical implications are discussed. The paper considers how CEFR-related approaches can support language learning, teaching and assessment in an intercultural educational environment.

Exploring the relationship between lexical access and proficiency level in L2 speech production

This study explores the relationship between lexical access and proficiency level in L2 speech production. Forty-one participants (intermediate and advanced learners of English as a foreign language) performed a lexical access task in L2 which yielded two measures: reaction time (RT) and naming accuracy (NA). The statistical analysis point to a facilitatory effect of semantic related word distractors on L2 picture-naming for the experimental and control conditions in both proficiency groups. In addition, only the mean difference in NA scores for the control and experimental conditions between proficiency groups reached statistical significance. That is, advanced learners overpassed the intermediate ones in number of words correctly named. Results also indicate a partial relationship between RT and NA scores. Findings are explained in light of research on L2 speech production, lexical access and working memory, taking into account the development of L2 proficiency and L2 lexical representations.

Efl speech production: exploring the relationship between working memory capacity and profciency level

The present study explores the relationship between working memory capacity (WMC) and proficiency level in EFL 1 speech production. Forty-one participants performed two WMC tests – the Speaking Span Test in L1 and in L2. The statistical analysis indicated both a variation on WMC scores in L2 as a function of proficiency as well as a difference between WMC scores in L1 and in L2. Findings are explained mainly in respect to the interplay between automatic and controlled processes on memory retrieval and on the development of L2 proficiency.

Working memory and second language comprehension and production: A meta-analysis

Although working memory (WM) figures centrally in many theories of second language (L2) proficiency development and processing, some have argued that the importance of WM is overstated (e.g., Juffs, Transactions of the Philological Society, 102, 199-225, 2004). Despite many studies over the past two decades, the literature lacks a quantitative synthesis of the extant results. In this article, we report a meta-analysis of data from 79 samples involving 3,707 participants providing 748 effect sizes. The results indicate that WM is positively associated with both L2 processing and proficiency outcomes, with an estimated population effect size (ρ) of .255. In additional analyses, we assessed whether the WM-criterion relationship was modulated by potential covariates identified in the literature search (i.e., participant characteristics, WM measure features, criterion measure factors, and publication status). The results of the covariate analyses indicated larger effect sizes for the executive control (vs. storage) component of WM, and for verbal (vs. nonverbal) measures of WM. Minimal publication bias was detected, suggesting that WM has a robust, positive relationship with L2 outcomes. We discuss the implications of these results for models of WM and theories of L2 processing and L2 proficiency development.

Incidental Development of L2 Proficiency in NS-NNS Email Interactions

Recent research suggests that email can be a powerful motivator for authentic L2 interaction, but little is known about the efficacy of this medium in the development of target language proficiency. The present study addresses this issue by examining email exchanges between university learners of Japanese as a foreign language and native Japanese university students. Of interest is the effect of email interactions on the incidental development L2 syntax and vocabulary as reflected in both quantitative and qualitative measures. Messages sampled at regular intervals over a 5-week collection period indicated a reliable increase in syntactic development as reflected in several measures of structural mastery as well as in qualitative ratings supplied by native speaking raters. There was no evidence of quantitative development for vocabulary, but qualitative ratings did show a small improvement over the collection period. A sharp drop-off was noted between the first and the second samples across all measures, with learner performance then improving steadily till the end of the study. The findings are related to an interactionist account of L2 development that is embedded in the framework of computer-mediated communication (CMC). Issues in research methodology are also discussed.

Second Language Learning and the External Context

SLA is as much a product of learner-internal as of contextual, learner-external factors but the latter have been relatively underinvestigated in mainstream SLA research. This research focuses on German-speaking pupils learning English in four different educational contexts (n=4x26), representing four discrete points on the traditional foreign language - second language context continuum: a regular German school near Munich (Germany), the European School (ES) in Munich, the ES in Brussels (Belgium), and the ES in Culham (UK). Two dependent variables have been studied: global L2 proficiency and L2 social-psychological dispositions. The study reveals significant differences in global L2 proficiency amongst the four contexts. The results suggest that a high functional importance of the target language in the learning environment stimulates L2 proficiency development. In terms of social-psychological dispositions, no important differences were found amongst the four contexts; pupils in all four contexts demonstrate positive attitudes towards (learning) English and are highly motivated.

The Ethnic Group Affiliation and L2 Proficiency Link: Empirical Evidence

With economic globalisation making second language (L2) learning inevitable throughout the world, understanding what factors facilitate success is a socioeconomic necessity. This paper examined the role of social factors, those related to ethnic group affiliation (EGA), in the development of L2 proficiency. Although numerous studies have documented an intimate relationship between language and EGA, few have examined whether and how this relationship shapes L2 learning. The participants were 59 adult French–English bilinguals from Québec who read an English text and completed a questionnaire assessing their EGA, including pride, loyalty and support for their ethnic group and its language. Results revealed a significant, albeit complex, association between EGA and L2 proficiency. Basic feelings of pride and loyalty towards the ethnic group had no associations with L2 proficiency. Strong support for the group's sociopolitical aspirations were associated with low L2 proficiency. In turn, strong ethnic group identification, coupled with a positive orientation towards the L2 group, was associated with high L2 proficiency. These EGA effects were found to be mediated by amount of L2 use, revealing a plausible link sustaining the relationship between EGA and L2 learning success.

Investigating lexical proficiency development over time – the case of Dutch-speaking learners of French in Brussels

ABSTRACTThis article aims (a) to explore the operationalisation and definition of lexical L2 proficiency and related constructs with a view to identifying a set of measures that can adequately capture the dynamics of lexical L2 proficiency development over time, and (b) to shed more light on the development of lexical proficiency in French Foreign Language classes. After a discussion of theoretical, terminological and methodological issues in L2 vocabulary research, we present a longitudinal quantitative study of the lexical development of Dutch-speaking adolescents learning FFL in Dutch-medium schools in Brussels over a three-year period and compare these learners' lexical proficiency in French to native speaker benchmarks.

The Ethnic Group Affiliation and L2 Proficiency Link: Empirical Evidence

With economic globalisation making second language (L2) learning inevitable throughout the world, understanding what factors facilitate success is a socioeconomic necessity. This paper examined the role of social factors, those related to ethnic group affiliation (EGA), in the development of L2 proficiency. Although numerous studies have documented an intimate relationship between language and EGA, few have examined whether and how this relationship shapes L2 learning. The participants were 59 adult French–English bilinguals from Québec who read an English text and completed a questionnaire assessing their EGA, including pride, loyalty and support for their ethnic group and its language. Results revealed a significant, albeit complex, association between EGA and L2 proficiency. Basic feelings of pride and loyalty towards the ethnic group had no associations with L2 proficiency. Strong support for the group's sociopolitical aspirations were associated with low L2 proficiency. In turn, strong ethnic group identification, coupled with a positive orientation towards the L2 group, was associated with high L2 proficiency. These EGA effects were found to be mediated by amount of L2 use, revealing a plausible link sustaining the relationship between EGA and L2 learning success.

Thinking Languages in L2 Writing: Research Findings and Pedagogical Implications.

This article reports the findings of part of a major study exploring the disciplinary writing processes and perceptions of 15 Chinese graduate students in sciences and engineering at a major Canadian university. The findings relate to the thinking languages of the participants in writing disciplinary assignments. The study reveals that whether an L2 writer thinks in L1 or L2 may not depend on one factor as proposed in earlier studies (Friedlander, 1990; Qi, 1998), but on a number of factors including the language of knowledge input, the language of knowledge acquisition, the development of L2 proficiency, the level of knowledge demands, and specific task conditions. It is the interplay among these (and possibly other) factors that determines the writer's choice of the thinking language, which may switch back and forth between L1 and L2. Further, although translation may be a positive strategy for a student with limited L2 proficiency, it may gradually phase out as the student thinks more in L2 and writes L2 in approximation to the language of native writers. Thus a thinking language continuum may exist along which the use of translation varies.

Introduction: Vocabulary Learning and Teaching in a Second Language

Vocabulary knowledge in a second language (L2) is fundamental to the development of L2 proficiency. How this knowledge is acquired and what conditions favour its development are key questions that are now increasingly commanding research attention in a wide variety of language learning settings across the world (e.g.,Arnaud & Bèjoint, 1992; Harley, 1995; Huckin, Haynes, & Coady, 1993; Meara, 1987, 1992; Nation, 1990). These are the questions that motivated the present set of original articles on L2 vocabulary learning. Each of the 12 studies in this issue examines L2 vocabulary learning from a particular angle, focusing for example on the assessment of progress in vocabulary knowledge, the approaches and strategies that learners use in decoding, comprehending, and learning unfamiliar words, the relevance of context for vocabulary learning, the role of learner factors such as age, proficiency, and first language (Ll) background, and the merits of different instructional practices for developing lexical proficiency in the L2.