L2 Performance Research Articles

Which Factors Predict L2 Receptive Vocabulary and Expressive Syntax in Bilingual Children from Low-SES Families?

The objective of the current study was two-fold. First, it aimed to estimate receptive vocabulary and expressive syntax skills in L2 Italian among early sequential/simultaneous bilingual children of migrant single-mother families with very low socioeconomic status (SES). This objective was achieved by matching the participants' performance with normative data. Secondly, this study aimed to identify which individual and language exposure factors contributed to learning L2 vocabulary and syntax. Twenty-four early sequential/simultaneous bilingual children (age range = 5.10-12.4 years) and their mothers were enrolled. Mothers answered questions about linguistic biography and demographic information. Children completed Lexical Comprehension, Sentence Repetition, and Non-Word Repetition tasks from the Language Assessment Battery for 4-12-year-olds to, respectively, assess receptive vocabulary, expressive syntax, and phonological processing. Moreover, non-verbal intellectual functioning was evaluated by the Raven's Test. Compared to normative data, 20 children showed lower receptive vocabulary abilities (<-1.5 SD), 24 lower expressive syntax skills (-2DS), and 7 children lower phonological processing (<-1.5 DS). Moreover, L2 phonological processing and the length of L2 exposure in an educational context positively predicted L2 receptive vocabulary as well as L2 expressive syntax skills. To date, performance in L2 among early sequential/simultaneous bilingual children from migrant households and very low SES remains underexplored. Future efforts need to be directed towards the understanding of factors that impact oral competence in L2, considering that these children will also be exposed to written L2 in the school context.

That-trace effects in Najdi Arabic L2 learners of English

Abstract The current study is a partial replication of Kim and Goodall (2024), who tested competing predictions of two prominent accounts of that-trace effects, which are argued to emerge due to either syntactic constraints or considerations of the production system. To tease apart these possibilities, Kim and Goodall examine L2 sensitivity to that-trace effects, as the two accounts implicitly have different expectations regarding L2 performance. Their results showed a non-native pattern of acceptability judgments for Korean and Spanish learners of English, whose L1s do not display that-trace effects, which are argued to support a production-based account. The current study extends their experiment to Nadji Arabic L2 learners of English, whose L1 critically exhibits that-trace effects, allowing us to probe whether previous findings can be accounted for by processing difficulties or L1 background. Our results indicated that despite L2 learners’ native-like sensitivity at the group level, lower proficiency was associated with non-native-like subject extraction effects, in line with Kim and Goodall’s results. Overall, findings from an acceptability judgment task suggest that L2 sensitivity to that-trace effects does not involve transfer of a syntactic constraint, but is something that develops with proficiency, more in line with a production-based account.

Is Second Language Attrition Inevitable After Instruction Ends? An Exploratory Longitudinal Study of Advanced Instructed Second Language Users

AbstractMost second language acquisition (SLA) research has documented the processes involved in learning second/foreign languages, with few studies focusing on the durability of attained second language (L2) skills once instructed learners/users are no longer receiving formal instruction. The current study examines the effects of continued exposure and peak instructional attainment on the long‐term evolution of advanced, instructed L2 learners’ skills following a longitudinal mixed‐methods research design. Participants (n = 28) completed an oral proficiency test, an oral interview, and a vocabulary knowledge test at multiple times over an 8‐year period, 6 years of which were postinstruction. Results showed that continued exposure contributes to long‐term retention (and some further development) of oral proficiency and fluency and that peak attainment at the end of formal instruction is also an important variable for some areas of L2 performance. Additionally, even the participants with limited exposure demonstrated little attrition over time.

Switching Anti-Windup Synthesis for Linear Systems With Asymmetric Actuator Saturation.

This article proposes a switching anti-windup strategy for linear, time-invariant (LTI) systems subject to asymmetric actuator saturation and L2 -disturbances, the core idea behind which is to make full use of the available range of control input space by switching among multiple anti-windup gains. The asymmetrically saturated LTI system is converted to a switched system with symmetrically saturated subsystems, and a dwell time switching rule is presented to govern the switching between different antiwindup gains. Based on multiple Lyapunov functions, we derive sufficient conditions for guaranteeing the regional stability and weighted L2 performance of the closed-loop system. The switching anti-windup synthesis that designs a separate anti-windup gain for each subsystem is cast as a convex optimization problem. In comparison with the design of a single anti-windup gain, our method can induce less conservative results since the asymmetric character of the saturation constraint is fully utilized in the switching anti-windup design. Two numerical examples, and an application to aeroengine control (the experiments are conducted on a semiphysical test bench), demonstrate the superiority and practicality of the proposed scheme.

The effects of task complexity and task sequencing on L2 performance: a systematic review

ABSTRACT This systematic review aims to explore how task complexity and task sequencing affect the complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) of second language performance. Through an analysis of studies conducted between 2012 and 2021, this review investigates the characteristics of the studies, operationalisation of task complexity, measurements of CAF, and the effects of task complexity and task sequencing on CAF. The results suggest a shift in research focus from task complexity to task sequencing. Most prior studies examined Robinson’s hypotheses among English adult learners engaged in writing tasks, mainly utilising elements, reasoning demands, and content support to manipulate task complexity. In addition, they employed a diverse range of methods to measure CAF. The findings partially support the Cognition Hypothesis and the SSARC (stabilise, simplify, automatise, reconstruct, and complexify) model. Previous findings provide robust evidence that complex tasks, controlled via elements and reasoning demands, enhance language complexity. Furthermore, sequencing tasks from simple to complex has been shown to overall improve CAF. Implications for future research are discussed.

Writing in L2 Greek: Exploring the effect of L2 proficiency and learning context on complexity, accuracy, and fluency

Complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) have been proposed as measures of L2 performance and are fundamental variables of written analysis. Empirical studies have shown how written production is developed across proficiency levels and have highlighted the impact of language learning context (second versus foreign) on such development. Despite research that analyzes L2 written production in relation to L2 proficiency or L2 context, few studies examine both in combination. This study explores the role of proficiency and learning context in the written production of L2 Modern Greek learners. Three hundred twenty-four (N = 324) L2 Modern Greek learners of different proficiency levels (A2 to C1) studying in two different learning contexts (second: Greece versus foreign: Spain) carried out a written task (opinion essay). The results showed that two indices of the length of production (mean length of sentence and clause), one index of subordination (dependent clauses per clause), accuracy, and fluency were good indicators of proficiency level. Also, learning context affected the length of production, sentence complexity, and subordination. While differences were observed between the two settings, no superiority of one context over the other was found. Significant interaction effects between context and proficiency were detected in syntactic complexity (coordination) and fluency.

Understanding L2 student writers’ self-assessment in digital multimodal composing: A process-oriented approach

While previous research has investigated student perceptions of the benefits of self-assessment in print-based L2 writing tasks, little research has delved into students' self-assessment processes in technology-enhanced L2 writing tasks, which may create new opportunities and challenges for self-assessment. Drawing on multiple sources of data, including student interviews, classroom observations, and documents, this multiple case study examines how Chinese university students of differing L2 proficiency assess their own digital multimodal composing (DMC) projects. The findings revealed that L2 student writers were involved in the processes of determining performance criteria, self-directed feedback seeking, self-reflection, and taking action in their DMC self-assessment. The findings also indicated that while the high-proficiency students' self-assessment process was more cyclical, the middle- and low-proficiency students’ self-assessment processes were more linear, and they also exhibited differing features in their specific DMC self-assessment processes. This study provides insights into conceptualizing models of student self-assessment in L2 writing and adds to our understanding of how to assess student performance in technology-enhanced L2 writing tasks.

Establishing analytic score profiles for large-scale L2 writing assessment: The case of the CET-4 writing test

This study addresses a critical need in large-scale L2 writing assessment by emphasizing the significance of tailoring assessments to specific teaching and learning contexts. Focusing on the CET-4 writing test in China, the research unfolded in two phases. In Phase I, an empirically-developed analytic rating scale designed for the CET-4 writing test was rigorously validated. Twenty-one raters used this scale to rate 30 essays, and Many-Facets Rasch Model (MFRM) analysis was performed on the rating data. The outcomes demonstrate the scale’s robustness in effectively differentiating examinees’ writing performance, ensuring consistency among raters, and mitigating rater variation at both individual and group level. Phase II extends the research scope by applying the validated scale to score 142 CET-4 writing scripts. Utilizing Hierarchical and K-Means cluster analyses, this phase unveils three distinct score profiles. These findings are significant for both the CET-4 writing test and other L2 large-scale writing assessment. Theoretically, this study introduces a perspective that aims to enhance our understanding of learners’ performance in large-scale L2 writing assessment. Methodologically, this study presents a framework that integrates the validation of the rating scale with the identification of distinct score clusters, thus aiming to provide a more detailed solution for tailoring assessments to specific learning contexts.

Examining the Impact of a Digital Reading Progress Tool on Saudi L2 Learners’ Reading Aloud Performance and Proficiency

: Few studies have considered the use of digital reading tools for improving the fluency and proficiency of Saudi learners of English as a second language (ESL). Hence, in this study, the researcher investigated the impact of Microsoft’s Digital Reading Progress tool on 30 Saudi ESL learners’ reading performance and proficiency. The participants were all at the B1 intermediate English language level in academic ESL, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) English language proficiency test. The students were given one reading passage per week, and the researcher examined their performance in reading aloud over a period of four weeks using the Digital Reading Progress tool. The researcher employed a quantitative analysis, including post-assessments, to measure five aspects of participants’ reading performance: mispronunciation of words, self-corrections, omissions, repetitions, and correct words per minute. The findings revealed significant improvements in participants’ reading performance, fluency, and accuracy, as evidenced by increased accuracy after engaging with the Digital Reading Progress tool, increased scores across the five rated categories, and reduced pronunciation and word omission errors. This study contributes to the growing body of research on technology-enhanced language learning by demonstrating the positive impact of the Digital Reading Progress tool on L2 learners’ reading performance and proficiency. The findings have practical implications for ESL instructors in integrating digital tools as valuable pedagogical resources for enhancing L2 reading learning and performance.

Unraveling the differential effects of task rehearsal and task repetition on L2 task performance: the mediating role of task modality

Abstract The study reported in this paper examined the differentiating effects of rehearsal and repetition, as two distinct task-readiness conditions, on L2 performance, and examined how such effects interact with modality (i.e., oral and written). To do so, 104 EFL learners were randomly divided into four groups, each with a unique readiness condition (rehearsal versus repetition) and a different performance mode (oral versus written). All groups performed orally or in writing a task twice either with awareness of the second performance (rehearsal) or without such anticipation (repetition). The task performances were assessed in terms of complexity, accuracy, lexis, and fluency (CALF). Findings indicated that while both readiness conditions showed beneficial effects, only rehearsal led to statistically significant enhancements in all CALF dimensions over time. Results also revealed that rehearsal yielded significant improvements across both modalities; however, the benefits were more evident in the writing mode. The study provides teachers with more insights into task implementation.

White matter plasticity during second language learning within and across hemispheres

Adult second language (L2) learning is a challenging enterprise inducing neuroplastic changes in the human brain. However, it remains unclear how the structural language connectome and its subnetworks change during adult L2 learning. The current study investigated longitudinal changes in white matter (WM) language networks in each hemisphere, as well as their interconnection, in a large group of Arabic-speaking adults who learned German intensively for 6 mo. We found a significant increase in WM-connectivity within bilateral temporal-parietal semantic and phonological subnetworks and right temporal-frontal pathways mainly in the second half of the learning period. At the same time, WM-connectivity between the two hemispheres decreased significantly. Crucially, these changes in WM-connectivity are correlated with L2 performance. The observed changes in subnetworks of the two hemispheres suggest a network reconfiguration due to lexical learning. The reduced interhemispheric connectivity may indicate a key role of the corpus callosum in L2 learning by reducing the inhibition of the language-dominant left hemisphere. Our study highlights the dynamic changes within and across hemispheres in adult language-related networks driven by L2 learning.

Negative mood constrains creative thinking in the native but not in the second language

Previous research suggests that creativity may be facilitated by a positive mood and inhibited by a negative mood. Likewise, speaking a second language (L2) has been shown to benefit creative performance. However, little is known about a possible interactive effect of mood and bilingualism on creative thinking. This question becomes more interesting in light of accumulating evidence that bilinguals experience emotional distancing in their second (L2) language compared to their first (L1) language, especially when exposed to negative emotional content. This raises the question of whether bilinguals experience reduced interference from a negative mood when generating ideas in L2 relative to L1, potentially creating conditions conducive to creative thinking. To address this question, Polish–English bilinguals were induced with a positive or negative mood through exposure to classical music excerpts and were asked to generate alternative uses for 12 everyday objects in L1 and L2. Our results show increased idea creativity in L2 compared to L1 when bilinguals were in a negative mood. This result was accompanied by decreased arousal ratings in a negative compared to positive mood in L2 but not in L1. In contrast with idea creativity, participants generated more ideas in L1 than in L2 and in a positive mood than in a negative mood. Together, we provide novel evidence for reduced effects of a negative mood on creative performance in L2 compared to L1, likely enhancing the creative potential of bilinguals when operating in L2.

Google Translate on English Writing Evidence of EFL University Students

This study investigates the Google Translate English writing evidence of English department and less-proficient non-English department students and students' perceptions of translating activities using Google Translate. Through the quantitative research, the researcher distributed a survey in the form of a Google form to 100 students majoring in English and non-English departments. A questionnaire was used to collect the opinions of the students on the activity. The results showed that Google Translates text exhibits authoring performance that is noticeably better and provides more enriched content, employing a vocabulary more sophisticated and grammatical errors. Students use Google Translate because the tool shows better L2 performance in writing languages and tends to be instantaneous. The implications of this research are what students' perceptions of Google Translate are, and whether Google Translate can improve students' writing skills.

Using sentence processing speed and automaticity to predict L2 performance in the productive and receptive tasks

Abstract We investigated the predictive capacity of second language (L2) sentence processing speed measured using reaction time (RT) and automaticity captured using the coefficient of variation (CV) on the accuracy of L2 use in receptive and productive tasks. A total of 74 Chinese English-L2 learners completed a maze task, an elicited imitation task (EIT), and a timed grammaticality judgment task (TGJT) using comparable sentences. RT and CV from the maze task were used to predict the use of L2 morphological markers in the EIT and TGJT. The findings revealed that there were no significant effects of RT and CV in the EIT. However, in the TGJT, the effect of CV was significant. These results highlight the predictive power of L2 processing automaticity in the receptive task involving L2 morphological use.

Judgments of learning in bilinguals: Does studying in a L2 hinder learning monitoring?

Nowadays, use of a second language (L2) has taken a central role in daily activities. There are numerous contexts in which people have to process information, acquire new knowledge, or make decisions via a second language. For example, in academia and higher education, English is commonly used as the language of instruction and communication even though English might not be students' native or first language (L1) and they might not be proficient in it. Such students may face different challenges when studying and learning in L2 relative to contexts in which they study and learn in their L1, and this may affect their metamemory strategies. However, little is yet known about whether metamemory processes undergo significant changes when learning is carried out in L2. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible consequences on learning derived from studying materials in L2 and, more specifically, to explore whether the interplay between monitoring and control (metamemory processes) changes as a function of the language involved. In three experiments, we explored whether font type (Experiment 1), concreteness (Experiment 2), and relatedness (Experiment 3) affected judgments of learning (JOLs) and memory performance in both L1 and L2. JOLs are considered the result of metacognitive strategies involved in the monitoring of learning and have been reported to vary with the difficulty of the material. The results of this study showed that people were able to monitor their learning in both L1 and L2, even though they judged L2 learning as more difficult than L1. Interestingly, self-perceived difficulty did not hinder learning, and people recognized L2 materials as well or better than L1 materials. We suggest that this might be an example of a desirable difficulty for memory.

Learners’ reception of translanguaging as a model for reading English L2 texts

Language is the mediator of two critical aspects of a child's education: identity and knowledge. Through language, learners can make sense of who they are and make sense of the world around them. However, the teaching of English second language in several schools in South Africa is such that a learner's identity, best described in their own indigenous languages, is not mirrored in the classroom and, in its place, a monolingual system (English-only) becomes central. Their acquired linguistic repertoire as multilingual learners is considered a hindrance to learning, not a resource. This paper assesses learners’ reception of translanguaging pedagogy as a model for reading English texts. It further seeks to take the debate about the paradox of translanguaging forward to determine if translanguaging is a unitary, differentiated system, or both. Exploring data in the form of class observations and interviews, the study reveals that translanguaging as a model for reading English L2 texts is well-received by learners as a practical and valuable pedagogical approach that can potentially improve English L2 performance. The results further establish the existence of both the unitary and the differentiated systems of translanguaging. In the end, the study's recommendations for transforming multilingual classrooms are discussed.

Fault-Tolerant Consensus Control of Positive Networked Systems

In this paper, we explore the consensus of positive networked systems with actuator faults. Firstly, the undirected and strongly connected topology is established with graph theory. The positive system theory is used to analyze the positive consensus of the closed-loop networked systems. State feedback gains are derived utilizing Algebraic Riccati Inequalities. Bounded multiplicative faults are regarded as uncertainties in the system matrix, while treating additive faults as external disturbances. Further, this transformation refocuses the analysis on the consensus problem with an L2-gain. Subsequently, the Genetic Algorithm is employed to optimize the L2 performance criteria. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed theory is validated through simulations involving both single-input electric circuit systems and multi-input networked systems.

The Interplay of Linguistic Complexity Measuresand Their Relation tothe Qualityof L2 Argumentative Writing

Previous research revealed that syntactic and lexical complexity is crucial in predicting writing quality. However, measuring these features is difficult because they often interact in unpredictable ways. To address this challenge, measurement practices need to capture a more holistic view. This study aims to explore the integration of the complexity metrics and examines how they relate to L2 writing. A sample of 199 argumentative essays from an in-house English proficiency test was scrutinized using the Syntactic Complexity Analyzer and the Lexical Complexity Analyzer. Factor analysis and Pearson correlation were used for data analysis. The findings indicated that, syntactically, a higher frequency and richness of coordinate phrases were associated with superior L2 writing quality (r=.27, p&lt;.01). Lexically, verb variation (r=.186), transformations of the number of different words measures (r=.241) and noun &amp; mod variation (r=.233) were found to be valid indicators of L2 writing quality. However, different from previous research on narrative writing, verb sophistication is found to have no significant correlation with argumentative writing scores. It indicates that the genre of L2 production is a variable that may affect the validity of verb sophistication as a descriptor of L2 performance.

Developing advanced L2 German writing: A functionally oriented longitudinal study

AbstractCompetent L2 writing has been described in research in terms of an increasing incidence, variety, and length of clauses; a countervailing compactness and tightness with reduced number of clauses even as clause length expands; and various interrelationships between syntactic realizations of texts and the genres they represent. These partly contradictory features are typically related to the fact that “advancedness” is both a notoriously vague term and a developmental stage that is more expansive than are introductory and intermediate levels of L2 performance. To contribute to a more differentiated understanding of advancedness—particularly its gradual development in instructed settings—this article examines the characteristics of advanced writing through an analysis of data that are (a) longitudinal, rather than cross‐sectional, (b) embedded in an instructional environment that has implemented principled, articulated curricular, and pedagogical practices for the development of advancedness, and (c) analyzed within a systemic–functional linguistic framework in order to focus on the notions of experiential and logical meaning. By analyzing the intraclausal and interclausal resources that evolving advanced learners use and by relating them to the learners’ developmental trajectory, this article contributes to a better understanding not only of the nature of advancedness but also of its development by adult instructed learners.

Towards a classification of text features highly indicative of context-appropriate L2 writing competence

The quality of written L2 performance is mirrored in the interplay between different text features potentially revelatory of the underlying competence. Such features may include vocabulary, grammar, cohesion, content, length, task realization, and more. The features appearing in such a form/use whereby they may be indicative of incomplete L2 acquisition, relative to the operating expectations, are commonly termed errors. Coding texts for errors, as context-inappropriate text features, has been a staple of applied linguistics for decades. The features indicating expected L2 acquisition having taken place (i.e., diametrically opposite to errors in terms of what they represent) do not have such a well-established conceptual or terminological equivalent nor a tradition of being marked in performances. In fact, there are no readily available classifications for systematically coding such context-appropriate text features when performed. To address this gap, the paper puts forward an intuitive approach to detecting and classifying L2 feedback-triggering text features exemplary of context-appropriate writing performance, termed here assessment-positives (mirroring errors as assessment-negatives). The paper then goes on to discuss the practical usefulness of the proposed coding method.