L2 Linguistic Knowledge Research Articles

How does background knowledge affect second language reading? An eye movement study

AbstractThere is broad consensus that a reader's background knowledge on a reading topic affects both their reading processes and comprehension in their first language and also in a second language. However, it is unclear whether a reader's background knowledge specifically affects reading comprehension accuracy and reading rate. The extent to which background knowledge facilitates second language reading when compared to a reader's L2 linguistic knowledge is also unclear. Moreover, the mental process accounting for the interaction between general background knowledge, type of linguistic knowledge such as vocabulary or writing system, and L2 reading abilities also need to be identified. Using texts in Mandarin Chinese, this paper investigates these problems with an eye‐movement study administered to 40 L2 Chinese learners with Indo‐European L1s. Results illustrate that an L2 reader's background knowledge about the text can positively impact both their reading comprehension and reading rate; however, the influence on the latter could be topic‐dependent. In more challenging topics, the contribution of background knowledge to reading comprehension could outweigh any single type of linguistic knowledge, even if the target language uses a more cognitively demanding writing system. The connectionist account proposed by the construction–integration theory is suggested to be currently the best theoretical explanation for the mental process behind developing second‐language reading abilities. Pedagogical implications are also considered based on these findings.

Perceptions des apprenants de la rétroaction corrective écrite synchrone dans la rédaction collaborative par vidéoconférence

Second language (L2) research suggests that synchronous written corrective feedback (SWCF) in online collaborative writing tasks can help improve L2 linguistic knowledge and writing skills. Following the rise of online collaborative writing in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, this exploratory study examines L2 learners’ perceptions of receiving SWCF during collaborative writing tasks completed on an online text-editing platform (Google Docs) and mediated by videoconferencing (Zoom). Adult learners (N = 46) enrolled in advanced online French as a Second Language courses took part in two collaborative writing tasks, during which their teachers (N = 3) provided SWCF. Learners’ screen activity was recorded. After the experiment, a perception survey was distributed and selected participants took part in semi-structured interviews to further discuss their experience. Results indicate that learners viewed the provision of SWCF through computer-mediated communication as an effective way to improve their L2 writing compared to traditional, delayed written feedback. Pedagogical implications for the implementation of videoconferences collaborative writing tasks involving teacher SWCF are discussed.

The Impact of Vocabulary, Inferencing, and Metacognitive Strategies on Second Language Reading Comprehension

This study aims to explore exploring the predictive factors of second language (L2) reading comprehension scores, specifically focusing on L2 vocabulary knowledge, first language (L1) syllogistic inferencing, L1 reading comprehension, and L2 reading metacognitive strategy use. The study involved 90 Korean EFL university students. Their L2 vocabulary knowledge, L1 syllogistic inferencing, L1 reading comprehension, L2 metacognitive reading strategy use scores were collected and analyzed for their influence on L2 reading comprehension scores. A path analysis was conducted for data analysis. The findings revealed that both L2 linguistic knowledge and proficiency in L1 reading comprehension had a positive impact on L2 reading comprehension scores, underscoring the significance of language-specific and crosslinguistic factors, respectively, in the comprehension of L2 reading. The results also indicated an indirect effect of L1 syllogistic inferencing skills on L2 reading comprehension through L1 reading comprehension. This implies that L1 syllogistic inferencing may boost L1 reading comprehension, subsequently benefiting L2 reading comprehension. Furthermore, the study brought to light the potential adverse effects of L2 support reading strategies on L2 reading comprehension. Overall, this study adds to our comprehensive understanding of L2 reading comprehension by shedding light on the intricate interplay of linguistic, cross-linguistic, and metacognitive factors.

Characteristics of Second Language Reading Processing

Several studies mostly focus on a specific area of research, the current paper’s aim is to bring together the various research in a single volume, indicating their particularities as well as demonstrate their inter-relations. Phonological, lexical and syntactic processing Second Language Processing (SLP) are discussed as SLP is a cognitive form of acquisition, and is debated o be bottom-up processes, up-down processes, or a combination of both resulting in integrated interactive processes. SLP faces more complicated issues and involves more factors in comparison with L1 processing as L2 reading comprehension observes the effect of higher-order processes and chances of crosslinguistic transfer in relation to the reader’s L2 linguistic knowledge, L2 proficiency levels, or other language-general reading processes. Furthermore, the major reading process models are mentioned in categories of word identification, syntactic parsing and discourse processing, as well as text and reader related variables are reviewed. Finally, some of the main pedagogical associations with teaching reading comprehension are examined.

Exploring literal and inferential reading comprehension among L2 adolescent learners: the roles of working memory capacity, syllogistic inference, and L2 linguistic knowledge

Exploring literal and inferential reading comprehension among L2 adolescent learners: the roles of working memory capacity, syllogistic inference, and L2 linguistic knowledge

Effects Of Field Independence, Metacognitive Knowledge, And Vocabulary Knowledge On Second Language Listening Comprehension

ABSTRACT This study investigates the effects of linguistic knowledge (vocabulary knowledge) and cognitive abilities (metacognitive knowledge and cognitive styles) on the second language (L2) listening comprehension at different proficiency levels. The study has also sought to investigate whether or not cognitive abilities and L2 linguistic knowledge are distinct cognitive factors that can influence L2 listening comprehension. The participants were 106 EFL learners drawn from six English classes at a Japanese university. During the data collection phase, all participants administered the L2 listening comprehension test, Listening Vocabulary Level Test, Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire, and modified Group Embedded Figures Test. The results of the correlational analyses and regression analyses demonstrate that two cognitive variables, namely, metacognitive knowledge and cognitive style, have a direct impact on L2 listening comprehension, independently of vocabulary knowledge; their contribution to L2 listening test performance is affected by listeners’ proficiency and the listening tasks’ characteristics. These findings provide evidence for the significant and independent role of field independence and metacognitive knowledge in L2 listening comprehension as an essential construct of cognitive abilities.

Roles of working memory, syllogistic inferencing ability, and linguistic knowledge on second language listening comprehension for passages of different lengths

This study investigated the effects of working memory capacity (WMC), first language (L1) syllogistic inferencing ability, and second-language (L2) linguistic knowledge on L2 listening comprehension for passages of different lengths. Participants were 193 Korean ninth-grade learners of English. A path analysis was used to examine multivariate relationships among variables. Findings indicated that L2 linguistic knowledge was pivotal in explaining L2 listening comprehension for passages of different lengths. Findings also indicated that over and above L2 linguistic knowledge, greater WMC facilitated comprehending longer L2 listening passages, while better L1 syllogistic inferencing ability facilitated comprehending shorter L2 listening passages. WMC may help form more information-dense representations of longer passages, while L1 syllogistic inferencing ability may help build integrated propositional representations of shorter passages. In addition, greater WMC had indirect impacts on L2 listening comprehension through L1 syllogistic inferencing ability and L2 linguistic knowledge, which suggests that WMC may lead to better L2 listening comprehension when learners have greater L2 knowledge or better L1 syllogistic inferencing ability. Overall, first, this study suggests a pivotal role for L2 linguistic knowledge in L2 listening comprehension and, second, roles for WMC and L1 syllogistic inferencing, which function differently depending on passage length.

Effects of working memory on L2 linguistic knowledge and L2 listening comprehension

AbstractThis paper examined the relationship between working memory (WM) and L2 linguistic knowledge as well as L2 listening comprehension with 150 Japanese EFL learners. The study also investigated the extent to which these relationships vary across L2 proficiency levels. The results in the study were as follows: (a) WM capacity was more strongly associated with L2 listening comprehension, L2 perceptual processing, and L2 syntactic parsing processing in the lower-proficiency group than in the higher-proficiency group; (b) L1 WM capacity still accounted for the unique variance in L2 listening comprehension after adjusting for the L2 language-related variables in the lower-proficiency group. The results suggest that the relationship between WM capacity and L2 listening comprehension may be mediated by L2 proficiency and depend on the domain-general processing efficiency reflecting central executive attention when the listening comprehension task requires conscious attention for less proficient listeners. The findings provide suggestive evidence for variation in the role of WM in L2 listening comprehension across proficiency levels and the significant role of L1 WM capacity in L2 listening comprehension as the general cognitive factor independent of L2 linguistic knowledge for L2 learners with limited linguistic knowledge.

Verbal Working Memory in Second Language Reading Comprehension: A Correlational Study

This study investigated the correlation and predictive capacity of verbal working memory (VWM) to the reading comprehension of children in their first language (L1) and second language (L2). The term verbal working memory refers to a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold and manipulate verbal and auditory information temporarily. A sub-aim was to investigate the contribution of L2 linguistic knowledge in L2 reading comprehension. Sixty-three Grade 3 South African children completed a reading comprehension test and VWM assessment (forward span, backward span, and sentence repetition tasks). L2 participants completed a receptive language assessment to delineate whether their linguistic knowledge (L2 vocabulary and grammar knowledge) would be more predictive of L2 reading comprehension in comparison with VWM. Regression and correlation analyses revealed that VWM is not predictive of L1 or L2 reading comprehension. L2 linguistic knowledge, however, significantly correlates with L2 comprehension and VWM capacity, although it is not a significant predictor of L2 reading comprehension. Our findings suggest that reading in an L2 is a multidimensional skill in which no single isolated variable can account for good versus poor reading comprehension.

Word Learning in L2 Chinese: from Perspectives of Learner-Related and Language-Related Factors.

Word learning in a second language (L2) is a complex process, which is affected by learner-related (e.g., morphological awareness) and language-related (e.g., word semantic transparency) factors. Morphological awareness is learners' sensitivity to the morphological structure of printed words, and semantic transparency is the degree to which word-internal morphemes contribute to the whole words' meanings. However, little is known regarding how these morpheme-related factors jointly function in L2 word learning. Thus, this study focuses on how learners' morphological awareness and word semantic transparency affect word-meaning retention in L2 Chinese, particularly the extent to which semantic transparency shapes the contribution of learners' morphological awareness. Thirty-four L2 Chinese learners from an American university participated in this study. All the participants received a 40-min learning session and five paper-pencil measures. The main findings showed that (1) L2 learners' morphological awareness contributed to their word-meaning retention beyond L2 linguistic knowledge; (2) L2 learners performed better when recalling semantically transparent words than opaque words after learning sessions; and more importantly (3) learners with higher morphological awareness performed better than those with lower morphological awareness when recalling semantically transparent words, but the learners in both groups had similar performances when recalling opaque words.

The Effect of Prior Knowledge on the Contribution of Working Memory to L2 Reading Comprehension

Working memory is believed to interact with a second language (L2) learning at the cognitive level. The present study sought to explore the impact of L2 readers’ prior knowledge on the contribution of working memory to reading comprehension. Eighty Iranian English learners were divided into two groups of high and low by their scores on L2 knowledge and the topic knowledge tests. Their working memory spans, and reading comprehension abilities were measured via a working memory test and a reading comprehension test respectively. The results indicated that working memory significantly predicted L2 reading comprehension only when the readers had sufficient topic knowledge. The results also show that the learners’ comprehension was mostly determined by their L2 linguistic knowledge, even when they had considerable working memory capacity. The findings imply that readers’ prior knowledge could moderate the contribution of working memory in L2 reading comprehension. A certain level of knowledge in the target language and on the topic is required for L2 readers to help working memory work more efficiently.

Word-meaning inference in L2 Chinese: an interactive effect of learners’ linguistic knowledge and words’ semantic transparency

Recent second language (L2) reading studies have examined how characteristics of an individual learner and word-specific linguistic properties jointly predict successful L2 word-meaning inference, i.e., a learner’s ability to guess the meaning of an unknown word. Semantic transparency is one such word-specific property. Each constituent morpheme in a compound word contributes differently to the word’s overall meaning. As a result, words vary in the degree to which they are transparent or opaque. The ability to infer the meanings of these compounds is associated with broad linguistic knowledge that varies greatly across learners. This study explores how L2 linguistic knowledge as an individual learner factor and semantic transparency as a word-specific property interact to affect L2 learners’ word-meaning inference in Chinese. Two hundred and twelve adult L2 learners of Chinese in China completed six paper–pencil tasks, which measured participants’ short-term memory, linguistic knowledge, and meaning inference of compound Chinese words that varied in their semantic transparency. The results showed that linguistic knowledge interacted with semantic transparency in word-meaning inference: morpheme knowledge and grammatical knowledge were significant contributors of word-meaning inference only for transparent words when L2 learners’ short-term memory was controlled. These findings underscore how reading in an L2 involves the interplay between the learners’ characteristics (e.g., linguistic knowledge) and language-specific properties (e.g., semantic transparency).

The relationship between English proficiency and humour appreciation among English L1 users and Chinese L2 users of English

AbstractHumour appreciation involves split second detection and resolution of cultural and pragmatic incongruities. Second language (L2) users may need more time and effort to understand and appreciate L2 humour. Previous studies have mostly used decontextualized verbal jokes and reported a linear relationship between L2 proficiency and humour appreciation. The present study strives for more ecological validity by using audiovisual-based, multimodal humorous stimuli. A total of 272 Chinese L2 users of English and 94 English L1 users rated the funniness and the ease of understanding of two short video extracts and then completed an English vocabulary size test, LexTALE. The findings suggest that L2 users need to reach a certain threshold in L2 linguistic, pragmatic and sociocultural knowledge before a positive linear relationship emerges between proficiency and appreciation of multimodal humorous stimuli. Also, advanced L2 users demonstrated similarities with English L1 users in humour processing.

Contributions of Morphological Awareness to Adult L2 Chinese Word Meaning Inferencing

AbstractThis study examined the contributions of morphological awareness (MA) to second language (L2) word meaning inferencing in English‐speaking adult learners of Chinese (N = 50). Three research questions were posed: Are L2 learners sensitive to the morphological structure of unknown multi‐character words? Does first language (L1) MA contribute to L2 MA over and above L2 linguistic knowledge? Does L2 MA contribute to L2 word meaning inference over and above L1 MA and L2 linguistic knowledge? These questions were investigated through the use of a set of experimental and paper‐and‐pencil measurements of the aforementioned L1 and L2 reading subskills and L2 linguistic knowledge, as well as working memory. Several significant results were found. The L2 learners were sensitive to the morphological structure of multi‐character words and more successful in guessing the meanings of novel words containing affixoids and familiar bases. L1 MA was found to transfer and facilitate the development of L2 MA over and above L2 linguistic knowledge. Additionally, L2 MA contributed to L2 word meaning inferencing indirectly through L2 linguistic knowledge. The discussion focuses on the intralingual and interlingual relationships among L1 MA, L2 MA, L2 linguistic knowledge, and L2 word meaning inferencing in adult L2 reading development.

Working memory in L2 reading comprehension: The influence of prior knowledge

To distinguish the role of working memory in second language (L2) reading, the present study investigated the influence of readers' prior knowledge on the contribution of working memory to L2 reading comprehension. Participants were 80 Korean college EFL learners from various academic backgrounds. Two types of reader knowledge (i.e., L2 linguistic knowledge and topic knowledge) were elicited, and a reading span task was used to measure working memory capacity. The results indicated the contribution of working memory to L2 reading comprehension was affected by prior knowledge. Working memory significantly predicted L2 reading comprehension only when the readers had sufficient knowledge, especially knowledge of the topic in the given text. Otherwise, their comprehension performance was mostly determined by their L2 linguistic knowledge, even when they had considerable working memory capacity. It was concluded that the contribution of working memory to L2 reading comprehension can be moderated by readers' prior knowledge, and that a certain level of knowledge in the target language and on the topic might be required for L2 readers to efficiently utilize their working memory capacity. Theoretical and practical implications were drawn for second language teaching and learning, followed by statements of limitations.

L2 Speaking Development During Study Abroad: Fluency, Accuracy, Complexity, and Underlying Cognitive Factors

We take a multidimensional perspective on the development of second language (L2) speaking ability and examine how changes in the underlying cognitive variables of linguistic knowledge and processing speed interact with complexity, fluency, and accuracy over the course of a 3‐month Spanish study abroad session. Study abroad provides a unique learning context for evaluating changes in the underlying dimensions of L2 speaking because learners are fully immersed in the target language and have ample opportunity to implement, practice, and integrate newly gained skills. Participants were 39 native English speakers acquiring Spanish in Argentina. Results show that participants experienced significant gains across complexity, fluency, and accuracy. However, these gains were not evenly distributed across all dimensions or across all learners. Learners with higher levels of L2 linguistic knowledge and faster L2 processing speed prior to study abroad experienced greater gains in accuracy and syntactic and lexical complexity during study abroad.

Investigating the structural relationships of cognitive and affective domains for L2 listening

This study examines the links between L2 linguistic knowledge, L2 listening strategy use, self-determined motivation, and L2 listening anxiety relative to L2 listening proficiency. Prior theoretical and empirical work suggests that these variables are interrelated in complex ways, and this hypothesis is tested here using structural equation modeling with a sample of 300 high school foreign language learners at the lower end of the proficiency spectrum. Our results indicate that intrinsic motivation yielded the strongest impact on L2 listening proficiency, and separately predicted greater self-regulated learning behavior, which in turn predicted lower levels of listening anxiety. L2 listening strategy use was additionally associated with higher levels of L2 linguistic knowledge, but did not directly predict higher L2 listening success. It was only through the mediation of L2 linguistic knowledge that L2 listening strategy use was linked to low L2 listening anxiety and higher overall L2 listening proficiency. These results are discussed, and we suggest that while L2 listening strategy use may be a key factor in reducing L2 listening anxiety, encouraging listening strategy use below a certain level of L2 linguistic knowledge may be of limited effect.

American Learners’ Comprehension of Russian Textual Humor

Over the past decade, second language (L2) humor has attracted scholarly attention as both a means and a goal of L2 development. Much of this research, however, has focused on oral communication, whereas virtually no studies address humor as an aspect of reading comprehension. This exploratory study combines these two areas of inquiry, examining how L2 learners of Russian negotiate textual humor. In particular, the study addresses the role of textual properties (genre and humorousness), and the effects of proficiency on learners’ ability to apprehend and appreciate textual humor. The findings suggest that learner comprehension is dynamic and often partial (cf. Bell, ), depending on familiarity with genre conventions and linguistic devices signaling humorous intent. The study also found that different stages of humor comprehension required discrete sets of knowledge: Detection, for example, relies on L2 linguistic knowledge, whereas understanding hinges largely on native cultural beliefs. Comparison of both groups suggested that the differences between learners and native speakers were both quantitative and qualitative. The role of proficiency was more complex than expected and primarily evidenced in the accuracy (rather than frequency) of humor recognition independent of text properties. The article concludes with pedagogical suggestions and outlines future research areas.

The Effects of Background Knowledge and L2 Reading Proficiency on Taiwanese University Students' Summarization Performance

Undertaken from a cognitive perspective, this study investigates how lower level processing (L2 linguistic knowledge) and higher level processing (background knowledge) influence English reading comprehension of university EFL learners in Taiwan. In particular, the study examines the bilateral effects of these two knowledge bases on the students' performance of a summary writing after reading an article in English which contained subject matter information. A TOEFL reading proficiency test accompanied by a background knowledge test developed by field experts were used to measure the two variables. Seventy-one university students who exhibited different levels of L2 reading proficiency and background knowledge participated in the study. The effects of linguistic proficiency vs background knowledge were scrutinized through statistical measures. The analysis revealed that the level of English proficiency and background knowledge both affected the participants' performances on summary writing into L1; however, the role of background knowledge, being a more powerful predictor of performance, was an integral component of comprehension in academic reading. The concomitant effects of these two variables were not observed, suggesting one knowledge base could not compensate for deficiencies in the other. In addition, the study indicated that university students' understanding of subject matters may extend beyond their own disciplinary area, as English majors might be equipped with more background knowledge than their peers majoring in that specialized discipline; likewise, non-English majors might outperform their English major counterparts in English reading proficiency test. In general, the students performed relatively poor in summary writing since they failed to build a conceptual synthesis based on the reading article. Suggestions toward improvements on English reading and summary writing are proposed for EFL university students.

The role of verbal humor in second language education

Instructor humor serves a wide range of functions in educational contexts. This paper reports on a study that investigated the functions of instructors' humorous verbalizations in academic classrooms at a university where English is used as a second language. Data were collected through audio-recordings and classroom observations. The results of an inductive analysis led to the development of three major categories, namely “foregrounding form”, “reinforcing meaning” and “highlighting cultural dissimilarities”. These categories represented the strategies that served as instructional functions of humor in the context of L2 (second language) education. Findings indicate that using verbal humor in L2 classrooms offers opportunities to facilitate access to L2 linguistic and cultural knowledge resources that are embedded in humorous exchanges. Additionally, the findings suggest that L2 instructors must have specific (socio) linguistic and sociocultural humor competence to use humor to engage learners and communicate finer aspects of the L2. The implications of the findings are explored within the context of second language learning and teaching.