L2 Learning Outcomes Research Articles

Integrating Embodied Insights into Second Language Learning: Emerging Trends and Future Directions

This study explores the relationship between second language learning and embodied cognition theory, highlighting the vital role that physical and sensory engagement plays in language learning. We discuss the practical consequences of embodied cognition for L2 teaching and learning, as well as its theoretical foundations. The review compares and contrasts L1 and L2 learning, looking at the advantages of embodied techniques for L2 learners. We also investigate how learning experiences affect L2 embodied cognition, proposing that technology-enhanced, multimodal, social interaction-based approaches can greatly improve L2 learning outcomes. To construct immersive L2 learning settings that mimic real-world language use, the study concludes by noting present limits and suggesting future research options, including the possibilities of virtual and augmented reality as well as the Metaverse.

A Study of Chinese University Students’ English Learning Motivation, Anxiety, Use of English and English Achievement

Research has found that contact with a second language (L2), L2 motivation and foreign language anxiety are important variables affecting L2 learning. Nevertheless, not much research has explored the relationships among these variables and their interactive effects on L2 learning outcomes. The present large-scale survey study examined the relationships between English learning motivation, English classroom anxiety and use of English, as well as their predictive effects on Chinese university students’ English achievement. A total of 439 randomly sampled students from two Chinese universities in Beijing answered the background information questionnaire, the 8-item English Classroom Anxiety Scale and the 35-item English Learning Motivation Questionnaire. The major findings were as follows: (a) English learning motivation, English classroom anxiety and use of English were significantly correlated with one another, and (b) English classroom anxiety, use of English and English learning motivation generally significantly predicted the students’ English achievements. These findings confirm the importance of L2 motivation, foreign language anxiety and contact with the L2 for second language learners. Hence, specific suggestions (e.g., reading and listening to more of a second language, creating a supportive and relaxed L2 classroom environment, etc.) are discussed regarding how to enhance L2 learning motivation, reduce foreign language anxiety and increase contact with the L2 in second language learning, so as to ensure sustainable development in second language learning.

Instrumental Motivation and Self-Efficacy of Indonesian L2 Learners of English: Does Gender Play a Role?

Extensive research on second and foreign language learning suggests that gender can significantly influence language acquisition. While some studies indicate that female learners often outperform males in language tasks, the evidence is inconsistent, and findings may vary depending on the learning context. This highlights the need to explore further how gender interacts with other factors, such as motivation and self-efficacy, in shaping L2 learning outcomes. This study explores how gender affects learners' instrumental motivation and self-efficacy in learning English as a second language. A total of 144 L2 learners from non-English departments at a private university in Java, Indonesia, participated in this research, which utilized a survey design. Paper-based questionnaires were distributed to participants, who were recruited through convenience sampling. The findings revealed that female learners reported slightly higher levels of instrumental motivation (Mean female = 43.40) than male learners (Mean score-male = 42.78). However, the difference was not statistically significant, t= .86, p = .15. In terms of self-efficacy, male learners demonstrated marginally higher levels (Mean score-male = 47.71) than females (Mean score-female = 46.32), but again, this difference was not statistically significant, t= -1.48, p = .14. These findings suggest that, while gender differences in motivation and self-efficacy are often highlighted in L2 research, their impact may vary based on specific learning contexts. Further research is needed, incorporating additional learner variables, to clarify the complex relationship between gender and L2 learning outcomes.

Project-based learning as an innovative approach for overcoming tertiary EFL students' barriers to learning English and coming closer to their L2 ideal self

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the potential effect of project-based learning (PBL) in alleviating the negative psychological factors that hinder language learning in an intensive-English course at a private Lebanese university through its meaningful, student-centered, collaborative, and creative pedagogical approach and supporting students in constructing a positive self-identity as an English language learner and user.Design/methodology/approachThe L2 Motivation Self System theory describes the roles of the Ideal L2 Self, the Ought to L2 Self, and the L2 Learning Experience as the three dimensions that trigger L2 motivation, which is an important factor in achieving L2 learning outcomes. This pre- and post-test questionnaire study aims to investigate the impact of designing and implementing project-based learning as a creative pedagogical method on the L2 Learning Experience of tertiary EFL students undertaking an intensive English language course.FindingsThe paper found that such a pedagogical approach decreased students’ foreign language anxiety and positively impacted their attitudes toward L2 learning as they actively engaged in their projects in a meaningful, connected, and creative manner. This paper concludes that the adopted innovative pedagogical approach created an L2 language learning experience for EFL students to move closer from their actual self to their potential or imagined Ideal L2 Self as they embraced their creative self, social self, and risk-taking self within the frame of identity negotiation and construction. Findings from this study map to the wider literature on L2 language acquisition and foreign language learning.Research limitations/implicationsThis study has theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, this research contributed to the existing body of literature on L2 education from a nuanced lens that maps students’ motivation, engagement, characteristics, and psychology to their identity as L2 learners to make their learning journeys more rewarding, productive, and connected.Practical implicationsPractically, this study showcases how the implementation of the PBL approach in a creative and aligned manner can positively impact students’ attitudes toward English teaching and learning, making novel reading a more engaging task that prompts students’ creativity, critical thinking, and risk-taking while facilitating the negotiation and construction of their identity as L2 learners and users. Additionally, the implementation of such creative pedagogical approaches prompts on an educational policy level the shift from the traditional ways of English teaching and learning to a more student-centered, engaging and connected state, creating a set of exemplars for EFL and ESL instructors to use to ensure that L2 learners connect to their own experiences and develop a range of transferrable skills while acquiring language capabilities.Originality/valueThis paper concludes that the adopted innovative pedagogical approach served as a channel for EFL students to move closer from their actual self to their potential or imagined Ideal L2 Self as they embraced their creative self, social self, and risk-taking self within the frame of identity negotiation and construction. Findings from this study map to the wider literature on L2 language acquisition and foreign language learning.

Relationship between young learners’ L2 proficiency and subject knowledge: evaluating a CLIL programme in China

While CLIL programmes have been extensively researched for their impact on L2 learning outcomes, the relationship between young learners’ L2 proficiency and subject knowledge has received less attention. This study aimed to address this research gap by examining the science content knowledge of two cohorts of Grade 5 students (n = 100) from two primary schools in China, with one school implementing a CLIL science programme and the other offering a conventional science programme. The study also investigated the correlation between science achievement and L2 proficiency, measured by assessing learners’ English speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills using the Cambridge Young Learners English Tests. Science knowledge was evaluated with a tailored test aligned with the National Science Curriculum. Results indicated no statistically significant differences in science achievement between CLIL and non-CLIL students, with the former achieving higher mean scores. We also found a significant positive correlation between science knowledge and overall L2 proficiency. Notably, receptive language skills significantly correlated with science scores, while productive language skills did not. These findings provide positive evidence for the potential effectiveness of CLIL programmes in the primary education setting in China.

L2 learning outcomes of a research-based digital app for Japanese children

AbstractDigital educational game-based apps can be effective in helping young children develop language skills, particularly when paired with formal instruction. However, we need to know more about how educational games benefit learning in the absence of formal instruction, given children’s proficiency with and willingness to use mobile devices anytime, anywhere. This study uses a randomized controlled trial design to investigate the impact of a digital app—ABCmouse English—on L2 learning of seven- and eight-year-old Japanese children over a 16-week period. Pre- and post-assessments of the children’s English proficiency, together with an analysis of when and how they played with the app, were used to shed light on the relationship between the children’s in-app game choices and their language learning outcomes. Surveys and interviews with parents provide qualitative insights and information about the experiences of children and their families while using the app and its impact on their development as language learners.

The impact of multi‐word units in early foreign language learning and teaching contexts: A systematic review

AbstractThis systematic review reports on research investigating the impact of multi‐word unit (MWU) input on young learners' second language (L2) attainment in instructed settings. Recent findings suggest that L2 learners can generalise from MWU input, abstract patterns and employ such schemata productively via slot‐filling, indicating that MWUs are key catalysts of learners' L2 development. Simultaneously, primary school L2 instruction is on the rise worldwide and the importance of MWUs is acknowledged in curricula, teacher education and teaching materials. Therefore, the incentive of this review is to systematically report the state of the art of research regarding the impact of MWU instruction in early L2 teaching contexts. The review covers English, German and French research into typically developing monolingual children aged 5–12 learning an L2 in instructed teaching settings. Only two of the total results (n = 2233) met the inclusion criteria. Following quality assessment using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool and based on a narrative synthesis of available results, we cannot report trustworthy evidence of the effectiveness of teaching MWUs to young L2 learners. We highlight the lack of research evidence and conclude that existing research lacks robust evidence that MWU input already established in teaching contexts has a measurable effect on specific aspects of students' L2 attainment, such as productive skills. Although we promote MWU's potentially facilitating role in L2 development, we call for more classroom‐based intervention research on MWUs in primary school contexts to enable much‐needed evidence‐based recommendations for L2 teaching to support L2 learning outcomes in primary schools. Context and implicationsRationale for this studyResearch has shown that multi‐word units (MWUs) are key catalysts for L1 and L2 learning. MWUs are crucial to current primary school L2 teaching and their importance is acknowledged in curricula. This review systematically examines the scientific evidence for the effectiveness of MWU instruction on L2 attainment.Why the findings matterOur review cannot report trustworthy evidence of the effectiveness of teaching MWUs to young L2 learners. This lack of evidence is striking since early L2 instruction is on the rise worldwide and MWUs are already integral parts of L2 curricula, teacher education and teaching materials.Implications for the research community and policy makersGiven our findings, we call for more research in instructed settings to better understand the impact of MWU input on specific aspects of students' L2 attainment, such as productive skills. Based on such work, researchers could provide policy makers and practitioners with evidence‐based recommendations that help integrate MWU input into L2 curricula and teaching in such a way that is most beneficial for young students' L2 attainment.

Individual Differences in Computer Assisted Language Learning Research. Mirosław Pawlak & Mariusz Kruk (eds.) (2023). Routledge, pages144. ISBN: 978-1-03214-588-4

Over half of a century, second language (L2) psychological factors have been heatedly investigated by L2 practitioners and computer assisted language learning (CALL) researchers who devote their continuous efforts to gain some comprehensive understandings of what learner-external and internal factors may contribute to successful L2 learning outcomes (Li, Meng, Tian, Zhang, & Xiao, 2021). For the learner-external factors, contextual settings (outdoor instruction vs. indoor instruction), availability of resources (paper-based vs. digital-based) and interaction modes (e.g., corrective feedback and collaborative learning) have been regularly discussed in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). Apart from the learner-external factors, an emerging array of publications with different foci have begun to offer insights into the learner-internal factors, viz. individual difference (ID) factors, such as learner demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, age of acquisition, and language proficiency, etc.), aptitude, working memory, personality, grit, willingness to communicate, learning styles, beliefs, learning strategies, L2 mindfulness, learning motivation, L2 self-efficacy, engagement and emotions, among others.

Content-specific vocabulary in CLIL: Exploring L2 learning outcomes in a primary education programme in Catalonia

The present study seeks to explore the effects of participating in a content and language integrated learning (CLIL) programme in terms of second language (L2) content-specific vocabulary learning in a primary education school. CLIL instruction has been found to benefit the development of English L2 vocabulary, more receptive than productive. Nonetheless, little is known on content-specific vocabulary learning in CLIL and how it is supported through classroom input with young learners. We explore the impact of a 4-week CLIL programme implemented in a Catalan primary education school with a group of 16 Catalan/Spanish first language (L1) children, aged 10–11 years. Vocabulary learning was measured by means of ad hoc tests, designed on the basis of the input from the CLIL materials and targeting vocabulary depth and breadth. The results indicate that CLIL instruction positively impacted children’s depth and breadth of content-specific vocabulary knowledge. More specifically, the children experienced a significant improvement both in their receptive and productive knowledge of word meaning and form with regard to content-specific lexis. Moreover, with regard to children’s productive vocabulary knowledge as elicited through a written content task, statistical improvement was found in terms of lexical diversity and sophistication, but not lexical density. We argue for the need to use input profiled assessment instruments to appraise L2 vocabulary gains in CLIL.

Comparing L2 learning outcomes in traditional and English as a lingua franca study abroad contexts

ABSTRACT The number of students embarking on a study abroad experience continues to grow steadily. A new setting for study abroad in English has developed recently where students may be studying in an environment where English is used as a lingua franca but is not an official language of the country. This setting is referred to as English as a lingua franca study abroad or ELFSA (Köylü 2016). The present study explores the outcomes that may arise from participating in an ELFSA programme and it compares the merits of this type of context to those arising from traditional, anglophone settings. Using a written task and a proficiency test, the L2 gains of 48 Catalan/Spanish undergraduates, learners of English as an L2, were investigated before and after their international stay in either an anglophone country (n = 29) or a non-Anglophone (n = 19) one. Results show that students improved on the four measures investigated and no differences were found between the groups in terms of their L2 gains.

Effects of Production Training With Ultrasound Biofeedback on Production and Perception of Second-Language English Tense-Lax Vowel Contrasts.

This study investigated the efficacy of ultrasound biofeedback compared to a traditional acoustic input-only method in the second-language (L2) production training of English tense-lax vowel contrasts (/i-ɪ/ and /e-ɛ/). The relationship between the degrees of production and perception learning was also examined to explore a potential L2 production-perception link. Using a pretest/training/posttest paradigm, two groups of native Mandarin speakers received three sessions of training, one with ultrasound and one with audio only. Perception performance was measured by accuracy in AX discrimination. Production performance was measured in terms of accuracy in repetition production and Euclidean distance between contrasting vowels. Both groups showed significant improvements in posttest production and perception tasks. Additionally, the training benefits were retained 6 weeks after training. The two groups, however, did not differ significantly in training gains; nor was there a significant correlation between training-induced changes in perception and production performance. The results indicate that ultrasound feedback is similarly effective as the audio-only training in improving the L2 production of English tense-lax contrasts and the benefits transferred to perception. The lack of correlation between production and perception gains suggests that the two modalities need to be separately trained to achieve desired L2 learning outcomes.

Advancing Motivation and Aptitude Research in Relation to Teachers' Practices and Successful L2 Learning Outcomes

The underlying constructs of aptitude and motivation in language learning have been a central topic in SLA research. However, issues investigated in this regard, have not substantially discussed the effect of teachers' practices on learners' motivation and language aptitude. This paper, therefore, argues that novel research is needed to examine the impact of teachers’ classroom practices on stimulating learners to engage effectively in learning and improving their ability to acquire and apply L2 knowledge. Towards this end, a detailed discussion of research findings of some influential SLA work on aptitude and motivation is carried out. The aim is to trace early and recent concepts of research findings on aptitude and motivation and interpret them in the light of their practical and pedagogical relevance to the achievement of L2 learning. Based on the research synthesis, practical implications are devised with the ambition to open a new avenue for future research to examine the effect of teachers' practices on learners' aptitude and motivation and whether such effect correlates positively with foreign/second language learning. The paper ends with classroom recommendations that are meant to keep students motivated and enable them to fully exhibit their language abilities with the hope of maximum attainment in the target language.

The predictive roles of enjoyment, anxiety, willingness to communicate on students’ performance in English public speaking classes

Abstract Despite the extensive research on willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC), foreign language anxiety (FLA), and foreign language enjoyment (FLE), few studies have tested the roles of these variables in predicting L2 learning outcomes. This line of inquiry is imperative, especially because the importance of L2 WTC primarily lies in its presumable role in enhancing L2 learning. This study examines how FLA, FLE, and L2 WTC predict English public speaking performance. Data were collected by administering a questionnaire that contained closed-ended and open-ended items to 132 Chinese university students who took an English public speaking course. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that FLE was the single significant predictor of L2 WTC and public speaking performance. Participants’ responses revealed a range of major categories underlying classroom episodes when they felt most enjoyable, most anxious, and most willing to communicate. Implications for future research and pedagogical practice are finally addressed.

A Meta-Analysis on Mobile-Assisted Language Learning Applications: Benefits and Risks.

Mobile language learning applications are a pervasive facet of modern life, however evidence on their effectiveness on L2 learning outcomes is lacking. In the current work, we sought to determine the effect of mobile language learning applications on L2 proficiency between groups who used mobile language learning applications and control groups who learned with traditional methods on L2 achievement. We systematically searched journal articles and grey literature between 2007–2019 and performed a quantitative meta-analysis based on 23 synthesized effect sizes. We also performed risk of bias and quality of evidence assessments on our included papers. We found a moderate-to-strong overall effect (g = 0.88) of learning achievement using mobile language applications compared to control groups who learned with traditional approaches. At the same time, we found high risk of bias and low quality of evidence across all included studies. Our results provide evidence for mobile applications as a beneficial tool for second language learning. However, findings should be treated with caution due to risks of high bias and low quality of evidence. Improvements for future studies are discussed.

The Influence of Form-Focused Instruction on the L2 Chinese Oral Production of Korean Native Speakers.

Form-focused instruction (FFI) can help second language (L2) learners notice the forms of language, which is conducive to the acquisition of linguistic forms. Two types of FFIs had been proposed, including focus-on-formS (FonFs) and focus-on-form (FonF). Previously, studies on FFI in L2 classroom teaching have focused mainly on the influence of two types of FFIs on the L2 acquisition of grammar and vocabulary. The influence of FonFs and FonF on L2 oral production, however, has been addressed less often. The advantages and disadvantages of different teaching methods in FonFs and FonF have not been well investigated. On the basis of Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis, VanPatten’s input processing hypothesis, and Long’s interactive hypothesis, we investigated the effects of teaching goals, teaching steps, and interactive activities in FonFs and FonF on the complexity, accuracy, and fluency of 32 native Korean speakers’ L2 Chinese oral production. We found that FFI significantly improved the performance of L2 Chinese oral production, although different FFIs had different effects on complexity, accuracy, and fluency. FonF and FonFs could improve both complexity and accuracy, whereas FonF also significantly improved fluency, which was not observed in FonFs. Furthermore, we found that the level of L2 proficiency could modulate the interaction between instruction methods and learning outcomes. For low-proficiency learners, FonF was more helpful for the improvement of fluency. For high-proficiency learners, FonFs was more helpful for the improvement of accuracy. These results demonstrated that teachers should pay attention to the interaction between specific teaching conditions with different L2 proficiency and learning outcomes when implementing FFI. The findings of this study have important implications for the design of procedures and interactive activities of L2 spoken Chinese teaching.

Motivations of Second Language Learning: Application of L2 Motivational Self System in the EFL Classroom

Second language (L2) motivation as a factor that facilitates effective language learning has been the focus of research in the field of second language teaching and learning. Particularly for EFL learners, L2 motivation may draw a crucial impact on their learning outcomes. Employing Dörnyei’s second language motivational self system (L2MSS) as the theoretical framework, this paper explored the influence of learners' L2MSS on their second language learning achievements by reviewing and discussing three current empirical studies and evaluating the application of L2MSS in the EFL classroom. This paper finds that ought-to L2-self drew a more intensive impact on learners’ L2 learning outcomes than the ideal L2-self. However, the ideal L2-self made a direct contribution to learners’ learning intentions. The application of the second language self system in EFL classrooms is worth being encouraged to assist second language teachers be more effective in enhancing learners’ L2 motivation to learn second language, leading to better learning outcomes and higher achievements.

Vocal Learning and Behaviors in Birds and Human Bilinguals: Parallels, Divergences and Directions for Research

Comparisons between the communication systems of humans and animals are instrumental in contextualizing speech and language into an evolutionary and biological framework and for illuminating mechanisms of human communication. As a complement to previous work that compares developmental vocal learning and use among humans and songbirds, in this article we highlight phenomena associated with vocal learning subsequent to the development of primary vocalizations (i.e., the primary language (L1) in humans and the primary song (S1) in songbirds). By framing avian “second-song” (S2) learning and use within the human second-language (L2) context, we lay the groundwork for a scientifically-rich dialogue between disciplines. We begin by summarizing basic birdsong research, focusing on how songs are learned and on constraints on learning. We then consider commonalities in vocal learning across humans and birds, in particular the timing and neural mechanisms of learning, variability of input, and variability of outcomes. For S2 and L2 learning outcomes, we address the respective roles of age, entrenchment, and social interactions. We proceed to orient current and future birdsong inquiry around foundational features of human bilingualism: L1 effects on the L2, L1 attrition, and L1<–>L2 switching. Throughout, we highlight characteristics that are shared across species as well as the need for caution in interpreting birdsong research. Thus, from multiple instructive perspectives, our interdisciplinary dialogue sheds light on biological and experiential principles of L2 acquisition that are informed by birdsong research, and leverages well-studied characteristics of bilingualism in order to clarify, contextualize, and further explore S2 learning and use in songbirds.

Digital Game‐Based Learning of Formulaic Expressions in Second Language Chinese

AbstractDigital games offer a promising platform to engage second language (L2) learners in contextualized language practice, including pragmatics practice. Although scholars have made strong claims on the benefits of game‐based learning, empirical findings have not yet established strong support for the effectiveness of games. Existing studies are mostly descriptive rather than experimental; few studies have compared L2 learning outcomes between a game‐based learning group and a comparison control group. To fill this gap, this study investigated the instructional and motivational effects of a digital game on learning Chinese formulaic expressions. We developed two digital learning environments: a scenario‐based digital game (Questaurant) and an interactive online lesson. Forty‐nine learners of Chinese in two U.S. universities were randomly assigned to the game group (n = 25) or the online lesson group (n = 24). Both groups equally improved their knowledge of formulaic expressions after the respective learning session. However, the game group showed a significantly higher level of motivation compared to the online lesson group.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HOW LANGUAGE LEARNERS PURSUE GOALS

AbstractIn two studies, we examined two functional dimensions of L2 learners’ self-regulation toward their motivational goals: assessment and locomotion. The assessment constitutes the aspect of self-regulation concerned with critically evaluating the relative quality of L2 states and goals and the means to achieve them. The locomotion mode constitutes the aspect of self-regulation concerned with uninterrupted movement from state to state toward L2 goals. We developed two scales to measure L2 self-regulatory modes. We also examined how L2 learners’ regulatory modes were associated with their emotional experiences, motivation, and language proficiency. Psychometric work attested to the reliability and validity of the two scales. Moreover, regression analyses revealed that each L2 self-regulatory mode has distinct emotional, motivational, and linguistic emphases. Finally, cluster analyses suggested that both L2 self-regulatory modes should work together for optimal L2 learning outcomes.

Linking L2 proficiency and patterns of functional connectivity during L1 word retrieval

Second language (L2) learners differ greatly in language proficiency, which is partially explained by variability in native language (L1) skills. The present fMRI study explored the neural underpinnings of the L1-L2 link. Twenty L2 learners completed a tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) task that required retrieving words in L1. Low-proficiency L2 learners showed greater functional connectivity for correct and TOT responses between the left inferior frontal gyrus and right-sided homologues of the temporoparietal regions that support phonological processing (e.g., supramarginal gyrus), possibly reflecting difficulty with phonological retrieval. High-proficiency L2 learners showed greater connectivity for erroneous responses (TOT in particular) between the left inferior frontal gyrus and regions of left medial temporal lobe (e.g., hippocampus), associated with implicit learning processes. The difference between low- and high-proficiency L2 learners in functional connectivity, which is evident even during L1 processing, may affect L2 learning processes and outcomes.