L2 Exposure Research Articles

Bilingual Learning for Young Children

This study examines the impact of immersion education on the native language (L1) proficiency of adolescent bilingual learners. Immersion education, where most academic instruction is provided in a second language (L2), aims to foster bilingualism while achieving academic competence. However, there are concerns about the effect of this educational model on learners' L1 development, particularly during adolescencea critical period for cognitive and academic language growth. Drawing from existing research on bilingualism and immersion education, this paper explores the balance between L2 acquisition and L1 maintenance. It emphasizes the role of home language support, school environment, and broader sociocultural contexts in shaping language outcomes. The findings suggest that while immersion programs are effective in promoting L2 proficiency, they may lead to a decline in L1 academic skills unless deliberate efforts are made to support L1 development. Key factors influencing L1 maintenance include the amount of L1 exposure, parental and community support, societal attitudes towards bilingualism, and specific classroom practices that integrate L1 use. This study underscores the importance of balanced bilingualism, where both L1 and L2 are valued, and provides practical implications for educators and policymakers to create supportive environments for adolescent bilingual learners.

Which Factors Predict L2 Receptive Vocabulary and Expressive Syntax in Bilingual Children from Low-SES Families?

The objective of the current study was two-fold. First, it aimed to estimate receptive vocabulary and expressive syntax skills in L2 Italian among early sequential/simultaneous bilingual children of migrant single-mother families with very low socioeconomic status (SES). This objective was achieved by matching the participants' performance with normative data. Secondly, this study aimed to identify which individual and language exposure factors contributed to learning L2 vocabulary and syntax. Twenty-four early sequential/simultaneous bilingual children (age range = 5.10-12.4 years) and their mothers were enrolled. Mothers answered questions about linguistic biography and demographic information. Children completed Lexical Comprehension, Sentence Repetition, and Non-Word Repetition tasks from the Language Assessment Battery for 4-12-year-olds to, respectively, assess receptive vocabulary, expressive syntax, and phonological processing. Moreover, non-verbal intellectual functioning was evaluated by the Raven's Test. Compared to normative data, 20 children showed lower receptive vocabulary abilities (<-1.5 SD), 24 lower expressive syntax skills (-2DS), and 7 children lower phonological processing (<-1.5 DS). Moreover, L2 phonological processing and the length of L2 exposure in an educational context positively predicted L2 receptive vocabulary as well as L2 expressive syntax skills. To date, performance in L2 among early sequential/simultaneous bilingual children from migrant households and very low SES remains underexplored. Future efforts need to be directed towards the understanding of factors that impact oral competence in L2, considering that these children will also be exposed to written L2 in the school context.

L1 production following brief L2 exposure: Evidence for cross-talk across comprehension and production.

Language control allows bilinguals to fluently shift between their languages. Here, we tested whether comprehension and production tasks initiate language control processes to the same extent, and whether these processes operate over specific concepts or globally. Seventy Hebrew-English bilinguals completed an L1 picture-naming production task in the first and third blocks, and either a reading aloud (word production) or an animacy judgment (word comprehension) task in their L2 in the second block. Further, concepts were either repeated across blocks or not. Results showed more filled pauses in the third block relative to the first block. Additionally, the size of this blocked-language order effect was similar following word production and word comprehension tasks in the L2, suggesting that production and comprehension tasks were similarly efficient in instigating control processes. Finally, both recurring and new concepts were affected, suggesting that mostly global language control is at play. These findings provide constraining evidence for fully understanding the scope of bilingual language control.

The Effect of Age of First Exposure on Vocabulary, Mean Length of Utterance, Morphosyntactic Accuracy, and Semantic and Sentence-Level Patterns in the First 2 Years of French Second-Language Learning by Preschool- to Adolescent-Age Mandarin Speakers.

Bilingual assessment is particularly difficult in the very first period of children's second language (L2) exposure. This exploratory, longitudinal study examined L2 learning after 1 and 2 years of L2 exposure by young immigrants and how it is affected by their age at first exposure to the L2 (AoE). Participants were 18 immigrants ranging in age from 2;11 to 14;2 (years;months), all within their first year in Montreal at Time 1, enrolled in a French school or day care, and from a Mandarin first language background. Participants were tested again a year later. Measures included receptive and expressive French vocabulary tests and conversational language samples analyzed using traditional measures of mean length of utterance (MLU) and morphological accuracy as well as novel measures of semantic and sentence-level patterns. Performance was relatively high already at Time 1 and increased significantly at Time 2 in both vocabulary and MLU. At Time 2, vocabulary scores were below normative values, whereas MLU was within expected values relative to monolingual and simultaneous bilinguals for the majority of the participants. However, higher MLUs were accompanied by more instances of both semantic errors and creative semantic strategies. French performance was strongly related to AoE; with amount of exposure equivalent, older participants outperformed the younger ones on MLU and vocabulary. Semantic errors and creative uses were strongly predicted by AoE; however, morphological accuracy and number of agrammatical utterances were not. This initial period of French learning involved a rapid growth spurt for most of the participants. We argue that the pattern observed, particularly among the older children, constitutes an early stage of L2 learning characterized by long utterances that are also frequently hard to understand as speakers encounter challenges and use creative strategies in their attempt to convey meaning. Comparison with normative reference bases for monolinguals and bilinguals with greater cumulative L2 exposure who have similar MLUs should be done with much caution during this early period.

Perception of English semivowels by Japanese-speaking learners of English

Abstract This study compared the perception of English semivowels /j/ and /w/ and their corresponding vowels /i/ and /u/ by two groups of Japanese-speaking learners of English: foreign language (FL) learners in Japan and second language learners who were initially FL learners (FL-L2). The phonological targets were /i/ and /u/ with and without preceding /j/ and /w/, respectively (/ji/-/i/ and /wu/-/u/). Discrimination and identification results showed that both groups performed comparably for /i/ with and without /j/, indicating their reliance on native phonological sensitivity to /i/ and /j/, which closely resemble Japanese /i/ and /j/. However, important differences emerged for /u/ with and without /w/, possibly due to articulatory differences in lip rounding for /u/ and /w/ between the two languages. Notably, while FL-L2 learners were equally competent in both the /u/-/wu/ and the /i/-/ji/ discriminations, FL learners were much less capable of the /u/-/wu/ discrimination than of the /i/-/ji/ discrimination. Moreover, FL-L2 learners were better at identifying /u/ than their FL peers, suggesting that L2 exposure may have facilitated their acquisition of the articulatory details associated with /u/. Overall, the study showed that engaging in L2 immersion following FL learning is beneficial for non-native phonological development among adult learners.

Developing EFL University Students’ Willingness to Communicate and Self-Perceived Communicative Confidence through Self-Assessment of Self-Recorded Conversations

Research on teacher strategies to improve learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) is limited. However, encouraging outside-the-class conversations could increase L2 exposure and improve communicative skills. This study investigated the effects of self-assessment of self-recorded conversations on Thai university EFL learners’ WTC and self-perceived communicative confidence. It also explored their attitudes towards the self-assessment. A mixed-method research design involving questionnaires, reflective reports, and interviews was employed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the effects and perspectives among 46 first-year university students with low English proficiency. Six students were interviewed to provide deeper insights into self-assessment effects. The results suggested that the self-assessment could develop WTC and self-perceived confidence. Also, it could raise awareness of their speaking problems as well as promote learning autonomy and the feeling of being supported by the teacher. Teachers can use the findings to increase learners’ WTC and foster learning autonomy, especially in the EFL context.

Influences of early and intense L2 exposure on L1 causal verb production: Comparison of 5-, 7-, and 9-year-old bilingual and monolingual children

This study investigates the influences of early and intense L2 exposure on children’s L1 causative verb production, assessed by an experimental causative verb production task. Turkish expresses causality by morphological and lexical means, whereas English does so by periphrastic and lexical means. Learning L2 English might enhance L1 Turkish causative verb production by highlighting the parallels and contrasts in causal expressions between the languages, which may result in an enriched L1 causative use. Five-, 7 -, and 9-year-old L1-Turkish L2-English bilingual ( n = 80) and L1-Turkish monolingual ( n = 80) children participated in the study in L1-Turkish. Results indicated that language group differences only emerged for the use of morphological causative verbs in favor of 5-year-old bilinguals compared with monolingual peers. Age group differences occurred only for the monolingual group and only for morphological verbs. Specifically, monolingual 7- and 9-year-olds performed better than monolingual 5-year-olds. Causative verb-type differences were only seen for 5-year-old monolinguals, who performed better for lexical than morphological verbs; in contrast, 5-year-old bilinguals performed equally well on the two types of causatives, and better than 5-year-old monolinguals on morphological causatives. Overall, these findings indicate that learning an L2 with structural similarities and differences compared with L1 might enhance children’s awareness and correct use of causal linguistic structures.

Effects of neutralization of tumor-derived immunosuppressant GDF-15 on anti-PD-1 activity in anti-PD-(L)1 relapsed/refractory non-squamous NSCLC, urothelial, and hepatocellular cancer.

2513 Background: Growth and Differentiation Factor 15 (GDF-15) plays a critical role as potent, local immunosuppressant during pregnancy. Here we report for the first time data identifying GDF-15 as immunosuppressant in non-sq NSCLC, urothelial (UC) and hepatocellular (HCC) cancer and provide clinical evidence that GDF-15 blockade with visugromab can restore anti-PD1 activity in last-line, anti-PD1-(L)1 r/r patients with these tumors. Methods: A large translational research program, analyzing &gt; 11.000 tumors in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and paired serum/tumor samples for GDF-15 impact on the tumor microenvironment was conducted. In the GDFather ph2a first-in-human visugromab trial, subjects with advanced-stage, anti-PD1/PD-L1 relapsed/refractory (r/r) last-line solid tumors received the GDF-15 neutralizing antibody visugromab (CTL-002) at 10 mg/kg Q2W in combination with nivolumab 240 mg Q2W om three defined expansion cohorts (NSCLC:n=5 2, UC :n=34, HCC: n=16). All patients were either (1) primary refractory to or (2) relapsed on continued checkpoint inhibitor (CPI) therapy after initial response, with all patients having received minimum of 12 weeks of continuous prior anti-PD-1/-L1 exposure. Primary endpoint was ORR. Results: In in-silico TCGA analyses, an inverse correlation between GDF-15 mRNA expression and key immune-related signatures revealed potent immunosuppression of several solid tumors including non-sq NSCLC and UC by GDF-15. In addition, in newly diagnosed, early-line UC patient samples, correlation of GDF-15 serum levels with reduced density of CD8+ T cells and immune cell proliferation (CD45+ki67+) was demonstrated. In the ph2a trial, visugromab + nivolumab showed excellent overall tolerability in heavily pre-treated patients, with just 6.9% of patients experiencing CTCAE Grade ≥ 3 treatment-related adverse events across these three indications. The observed ORR as per RECIST v1.1 criteria was 13.5% (5/37, 4PR, 1CR) in non-sq NSCLC, and 0% (0/15) in sq-NSCLC, in line with the translational research data. In UC, ORR was 17.6% (6/34, 5 PR, 1CR), and in HCC 18.8% (3/16, 2PR, 1CR); with 25 pts continuing on treatment, respectively. Duration of response (DoR) is surpassing 12 months for non-sq and UC lead cohort patients (N = 27 each) already, and 10/14 responses are ongoing. Conclusions: These analyses presented identify GDF-15 as novel, potent immunosuppressant in the tumor microenvironment of non-sq NSCLC, UC and HCC and identify it as potential key cause for CPI resistance. In heavily pretreated, by strict criteria anti-PD-1/-L1 r/r, late/last-line patients with NSCLC, UC and HCC, neutralization of GDF-15 by visugromab in combination with nivolumab resulted in an ORR of 16.1% (14/87; 11 PR and 3 CR) across these indications and long durability. Clinical trial information: NCT04725474 .

Effect of age of first exposure on L2 contextual lexical semantic learning: an ERP investigation

Abstract Age of first exposure (AoFE) is an important factor that influences the quality of L2 acquisition. This study aims to investigate the AoFE effect on the contextual learning of L2 novel words at the neural level, as measured by the N400 component from event-related potentials (ERPs). Eighty-eight participants were recruited for the experiment of L2 pseudoword learning, which includes a learning session and a testing session. The participants’ EEG data were recorded from the testing session, and the N400 effect was derived from target words that were either congruous or incongruous with the context. The linear mixed model and multiple regression model revealed a positive AoFE effect on the N400 effect in discourses that were designed for testing retrieval of episodic and semantic memory even after accounting for the variance contributed by several confounding factors. In addition to AoFE, the effects of total L2 exposure, L2 proficiency and personality on the L2 novel word learning performance indicated by the N400 effect were also confirmed in the statistical results.

Probability of Failure for Fixed Offshore Structures Determination: An Analysis of a Braced Monopod and 4-Legged Platforms with Respect to Industry Standards

The structural integrity is susceptible to a combination of statistical and engineering design uncertainties that may remain flexible as long as the structure can successfully manage the encountered load. There are many methods for determining the probability of failure (POF) in the oil and gas sector, but they all have particular constraints. Therefore, this study is a quantitative risk assessment to establish a more reliable method for calculating the POF value. This study chose and evaluated a sample of a braced monopod and 4 legged offshore structures for global non-linear analysis. The most reliable form of distribution was predetermined, and the appropriate integral equation was applied and computed based on the load and strength model conditions. The result of the testing of stress-strength interference for 12 directions and for 8 directions of wave impact in POF indicated that the platform remained intact and reliable compared to the L2 exposure level for the reliability target of POF recommended by ISO 19902, ISO 19901, and PETRONAS. Furthermore, this established that the applied integral equation provided a high degree of confidence in calculating the new POF. This newly created approach will enable the structural engineer to outline action items as part of the organisation’s risk management process.

First Language Lexical Attrition in a First Language Setting: A Multi-Measure Approach Testing Teachers of English

Research on first language (L1) attrition typically focuses on immigrant populations in their second language (L2) environment, yet we know comparably little about L1 attrition in the L1 setting. This study used two lexical tasks to test L1 attrition, a time-sensitive word decision task and a video retelling. Chinese teachers of English vs. Chinese teachers of other subjects (N = 25/group) were recruited at a secondary school in China. The aim was to provide an exploratory basis of the L2 influence on L1 lexical attrition in the L1 environment, both on the level of lexical comprehension and production. Mixed-effects models were used to analyse multiple measures including response accuracy and reaction times in comprehension, and lexical diversity, density, sophistication, and accuracy in production. The results showed Chinese teachers’ L1 lexical attrition in the form of longer response times to high-frequency Chinese words compared to non-English Chinese teachers, and the use of significantly fewer sophisticated words in their retellings. Also, teachers of English were faster and more accurate in decisions about Chinese borrowings from English, suggesting L2-driven influence on their mental lexicon. Considering participants’ background information, analyses showed that increased L2 exposure and frequency of use can predict L1 lexical attrition.

“Let’s Move on to the Recommendations.” The Use of Phrasal Verbs in Business Presentations of University Students in Hong Kong

Phrasal verbs (PVs), as a notoriously difficult L2 feature, have attracted the attention of applied linguists for a few decades. Empowered by corpus linguistics, the current study explored the quantity and quality of PVs in business presentations of university students in Hong Kong, to investigate nuances of the PV production of students in contexts. The learner corpus consists of twenty business case study presentations by 36 mixed-L1 students. Quantitative results showed that students used a sizeable number of PVs accurately. The most common lexical verbs showed a different pattern compared with native speakers of English, while the most common adverbial particles were mostly identical to those used by native speakers. International students seemed to use more PVs than Chinese L1 students and the avoidance phenomenon was observed on a few PVs. The unnatural PV use mostly stemmed from misuse of the adverbial particles due to negative L1 transfer and two instances of creative PV use were observed on English L1 speakers. We advise language teachers to incorporate more comprehensive instruction of PVs in business English courses (including common collocations, syntactic particularities, and polysemy) as well as more authentic L2 exposure.

Structural representation in the native language after extended second-language immersion: Evidence from acceptability judgment and memory-recall

Abstract Knowing the sentence structures (i.e., information that guides the assembly of words into sentences) is crucial in language knowledge. This knowledge must be stable for successful communication, but when learning another language that uses different structures, speakers must adjust their structural knowledge. Here, we examine how newly acquired second language (L2) knowledge influences first language (L1) structure knowledge. We compared two groups of Korean speakers: Korean-immersed speakers living in Korea (with little English exposure) versus English-immersed speakers who acquired English late and were living in the US (with more English exposure). We used acceptability judgment and sentence production tasks on Korean sentences in English and Korean word orders. Results suggest that acceptability and structural usage in L1 change after exposure to L2, but not in a way that matches L2 structures. Instead, L2 exposure might lead to increased difficulties in the selection and retrieval of word orders while using L1.

Unraveling the Complexities of Second Language Lexical Stress Processing: The Impact of First Language Transfer, Second Language Proficiency, and Exposure

AbstractWe investigated the role of cue weighting, second language (L2) proficiency, and L2 daily exposure in L2 learning of suprasegmentals different from the first language (L1), using eye‐tracking. Spanish monolinguals, English–Spanish learners, and Mandarin–Spanish learners saw a paroxytone and an oxytone verb (e.g., FIRma–firMÓ “s/he signs–signed”), listened to a sentence containing one of the verbs, and chose the one that they heard. The three languages have contrastive lexical stress, but suprasegmentals have a greater functional load in Mandarin than in English. Monolinguals predicted suffixes accurately with both stress conditions and favored oxytones, but learners predicted suffixes accurately only with oxytones, the condition activating fewer lexical competitors. Monolinguals predicted suffixes accurately sooner but at a slower rate than did learners. L2 proficiency, but not L1 or L2 exposure, facilitated L2 predictions. In conclusion, learners of a contrastive‐stress L1 rely on L2 suprasegmentals to the same extent as monolinguals, regardless of their L1. Lower L2 proficiency and higher cognitive load (more lexical competitors) reduce learners’ reliance on suprasegmentals.

What affects second language vocabulary learning? Evidence from multivariate analysis

IntroductionVocabulary acquisition is crucial in second language (L2) learning and can be affected by multi-variables. The fact that all these variables have typically been investigated separately (or, at best, in pairs) potentially obscures important interactions between them. This study comprehensively examines the intricate factors affecting vocabulary knowledge among Chinese learners studying English as a foreign language (EFL).MethodsWe conducted an investigation involving 200 Chinese EFL learners to identify the relationships between L2 proficiency, vocabulary learning strategies, age of acquisition (AoA), classroom exposure, and their relationships and predictive power on L2 vocabulary breadth and vocabulary depth.ResultsL2 proficiency emerged as the most robust predictor of vocabulary knowledge, closely trailed by vocabulary learning strategies, AoA, and classroom exposure. Notably, the use of metacognitive learning strategies such as self-regulated and self-aware learning, was found to be significant. Earlier L2 exposure resulted in a more sufficient vocabulary knowledge. However, the conventional belief that longer classroom sessions lead to enhanced vocabulary knowledge was challenged.DiscussionOur findings suggest the interconnectedness between L2 proficiency and L2 vocabulary knowledge. The investigation highlights the need for increased cognitive involvement and self-discipline in L2 vocabulary learning. This study also emphasizes the necessity to maximize the efficacy of classroom sessions, together with the benefits for an earlier age of L2 acquisition. Guidance for L2 researchers and instructors in second language vocabulary acquisition is offered.

From Research in the Lab to Pedagogical Practices in the EFL Classroom: The Case of Task-Based Pronunciation Teaching

Input and context-related factors identified by research as key success variables in L2 pronunciation development in immersion contexts play a very modest role in instructed foreign language (FL) learning environments. Scarce L2 exposure and use and L1-accented input make pronunciation learning extremely challenging. Current L2 speech learning models attribute difficulties in L2 speech acquisition to L2-to-L1 perceptual sound mappings guided by L1-based perception and poor phonological awareness and noticing of cross-language phonetic differences, which are typically not adequately addressed in instruction through pedagogic tasks. Explicit and incidental pronunciation teaching methods have been found effective at improving learners’ pronunciation, but ways to integrate them into communicative approaches to language teaching are still largely unexplored. Thus, language education practices currently lack a research-informed pedagogical approach that incorporates principles of L2 speech learning and task-based language teaching (TBLT) into pronunciation instruction. This article (1) presents an outline of new avenues for research and practice in L2 pronunciation instruction and (2) reports on the findings of an empirical study that implemented a task-based pronunciation teaching (TBPT) approach to teaching a difficult L2 vowel contrast through computerized collaborative map tasks that could be easily integrated into communicative FL classrooms.

Frequent native language use supports phonemic and semantic verbal fluency in L1 and L2: An extended analysis of verbal fluency task performance in an L1 language attrition population

Purpose: Verbal fluency (VF) tasks are an efficient tool for exploring lexical retrieval. Attriters generally produce fewer words in semantic categories than monolinguals, but the processes underlying attriters’ lexical retrieval remain unclear. Phonemic tasks are scarcely applied in language attrition studies. We aim to identify processes underlying attriters’ phonemic verbal fluency (PVF) and semantic verbal fluency (SVF) performance by extending the analysis beyond total scores in the first (L1) and second (L2) language. Design: We modeled total scores and temporal aspects of task performance in L1 and L2 for the attriters, with L1 use and length of residence (LoR) as predictors. We analyzed the number and types of errors between languages and compared L1 task performance with a matched monolingual group. Data and analysis: Attriters’ ( N = 38) phonemic and semantic task performance in L1 (Finnish) and L2 (English) were modeled, and results were contrasted to a matched monolingual control group ( N = 50). Findings: Attriters demonstrated strong proficiency in L1 and similar lexical retrieval processes in L1 and L2 after 20 years of immersive L2 exposure. Frequent L1 use supported overall performance but slowed performance down in both languages. Compared with monolinguals, attriters show a disadvantage in SVF, but not due to slower initiation. Instead, attriters rely more on rapid L1 retrieval than monolinguals. Originality: Prior research on VF tasks in language attrition populations has mainly focused on SVF total scores in L1. Our investigation explores underlying mechanisms of L1 and L2 task performance in PVF and SVF within a language attrition population and contrasts L1 performance to a matched monolingual group performance. Implications: This study demonstrates the importance of investigating L2 alongside L1 in language attrition studies for a holistic approach to language processing strategies. Our findings enhance understanding of the processes underlying VF task performance, emphasizing the significance of VF task early-stage performance.

Exploring collocation development in L2 German from students’ perspective: A contrasting case study

Despite the growing body of studies on collocation learning in SLA research, there are hardly any studies taking the perspective of the individual learner or studies that have examined the effect of individual differences. This study–a qualitative component of a mixed-methods longitudinal project–presents an in-depth exploration of the intro- and retrospective views of five Dutch-speaking L2 students of German on their 3-year collocation learning process. It focuses on the individual factors that enhanced or hindered L2 collocation development, and on the extent to which effective and less effective collocation learners differed regarding their L2 motivation, exposure and use, learning experience, and learning strategies. Extreme sampling strategy was used and five contrasting cases of learners were selected (three effective versus two less effective collocation learners). Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews and learners’ written reflections on five specific collocations. Findings indicate that the effective collocation learners showed a higher intrinsic motivation, more engagement in informal learning activities, more extensive social interaction in the L2, more awareness towards collocations, a higher degree of self-regulation, and a higher number of learning strategies than the less effective collocation learners. Based on these findings, pedagogical implications are provided.

Receptive Vocabulary and Listening Narrative Comprehension of Italian–English Bilingual Children between 5 to 7 Years

Vocabulary is the key component of listening narrative comprehension, but its contribution has been scarcely investigated in bilingual children. This study aimed to examine (a) listening narrative comprehension and receptive vocabulary in L1 (Italian) and L2 (English) in preschool and first grade children; (b) the specific contribution of receptive vocabulary to listening narrative comprehension in both languages. Participants were 30 preschoolers and 32 first graders, who are all Italian children attending an international school in English. In both languages, receptive vocabulary was assessed through PPVT-R and listening narrative comprehension through TOR 3-8. The results showed that listening narrative comprehension was age appropriate in both languages but higher in L1. Lower vocabulary in L1 than L2 was found, and this difference is higher for preschoolers than for first grades; finally, two regressions performed on listening narrative comprehension in each language showed that only vocabulary in the same language accounted for listening narrative comprehension. Children obtain higher performance in L1; however, after a few years of L2 exposure in the educational context, language skills fall within the normal range, with some weakness in vocabulary. Vocabulary contribution to listening narrative comprehension is similar in both languages and specific for each.

Pick a Movie

Foreign language learners without an immersion experience are advised to partake in activities that enhance their language learning outside the classroom. The objectives of this study were to explore which forms of language practice English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners engage in outside the classroom and whether this practice increases proficiency. The results showed that the most frequent forms of practice were academic activities (e.g., reading academic textbooks) and recreational activities (e.g., watching movies). In this study, EFL proficiency in participants correlated positively with age. Those with higher proficiency listened to English more frequently by watching movies in their free time than those with lower proficiency. We conclude that exposure to audiovisual material, such as movies, is an effective way to reinforce language learning outside the EFL classroom. Older learners with high English language proficiency reported practicing English more frequently in their free time, so watching movies may constitute an effective means of increasing L2 exposure outside the classroom.