L2 English Proficiency Research Articles

The potential influence of cross-linguistic lexical similarity on lexical diversity in L2 English writing

We examined the potential influence of L1–L2 lexical similarity on L2 lexical diversity, to determine whether the robust facilitative effect of lexical similarity that is found in processing and broad learning outcomes extends to this measure of L2 production. Our sample included two matching learner sub-corpora, containing 8,500 and 6,390 English texts, written in response to ninety-five and seventy-one writing tasks, by speakers of nine typologically diverse L1s, in the A1–B2 cefr range of L2 English proficiency. We found that lexical similarity did not influence L2 lexical diversity at any proficiency level. This finding suggests that the facilitative effect of similarity does not necessarily extend to L2 production, at least in the case of certain global measures, like lexical diversity, and certain task-based settings, like the present educational one, where lexical choices are driven primarily by the constrained communicative needs of the tasks. This is supported by the strong task effects that we found, which we quantified using mixed-effects models, whilst also shedding light on the use of lexical diversity as an indicator of L2 proficiency.

The economics of L2 English. Evidence from 2.0 mln subjects suggests an economics of language framework to account for country differences in L2 English proficiency

ABSTRACT We analysed Education First’s Standard English Test scores coming from 2 mln learners of English in 109 countries world-wide. Proficiency in English as a global lingual franca is an important skill in various areas of international communication. A larger linguistic distance between English as a second language and a learner’s first language has been put forward as increasing the efforts or costs of learning English. Instead of the subjective measures used in the past, we constructed a quantitative linguistic distance measure based on comparing words (lexicon), constructions (morpho-syntax), and sounds (phonology) between English and 59 mother tongues. Mixed regression analyses were carried out on the countries’ proficiency scores with a country’s human capital index, the official status of English in a country, and linguistic distance as predictors. All three predictors turn out to be robust proficiency determinants. Language skills constitute an essential component of human resources in today’s emerging and growing knowledge economy. These skills cannot be taken for granted and additional language training is required when linguistic distances are large.

Language learning and escapism: how five Norwegian adolescents escape reality through reading and/or gaming extramurally in L2 English

ABSTRACT Purpose This qualitative-dominant study focuses on five foreign/second language (L2) English learners in 10th grade (age 15) in Norway. The purpose is to provide insight into the processes underlying L2 English learning by looking at what escapist reading/gaming means for participants’ beliefs about their L2 English proficiency. Methodology Semi-structured interviews were conducted about learners’ engagement in reading/gaming in English outside of school, i.e. extramural English (EE). While other studies have explored EE reading/gaming, this study is innovative in that it contributes by additionally examining the role of escapism for L2 English learning. Escapism is the practice of temporarily escaping reality and everyday troubles. Purposive sampling was employed, and data were analyzed using inductive, reflexive thematic analysis. Findings and originality Three themes emerged: Relief: Students used escapism to temporarily escape stress, without losing their sense of reality. Personal changes: Students reported that escapism practices impacted their social skills and viewpoints positively. Language: Students perceived improvement in their English skills due to their escapism. L2 English was necessary to create distance from reality, and English reading/gaming material was associated with higher quality than material in other languages. These findings indicate that all participants experienced escapism similarly, as a positive outlet for stress. L2 English was necessary for escaping, which participants claimed to positively influence their English proficiency. Value The value of the present study lies in its attempt to shed new light on L2 English learning, by aiming to fill the research gap about the relationship between escapism and L2 English learning.

Extramural English as an individual difference variable in L2 research: Methodology matters

Abstract In light of findings from research on informal foreign/second language (L2) learning, with a focus on English as a target language and using the concept of extramural English (EE), this position paper argues that learners’ engagement in EE (through activities such as watching television or films or playing digital games) constitutes an important individual difference (ID) variable that needs to be included in studies that aim to measure L2 English proficiency or development. In addition, it is suggested that if EE as an ID variable is left out in such studies in the future, the rationale for exclusion should be clearly stated. This position paper also discusses research instruments and methods used in this area of research, the benefits and drawbacks of different methods, and identifies research gaps and under-researched learner groups. Further, it is argued that in some contexts, EE has replaced classroom activities as the starting point for and foundation of learning English.

Perceptions of learning from audiovisual input and changes in L2 viewing preferences: The roles of on-screen text and proficiency

AbstractPrevious research on audiovisual input attests to a significant effect of on-screen text and proficiency on learning gains. However, there is scarce research on whether these factors affect viewers’ feeling of learning, a variable that can affect overall second language (L2) learning outcomes (Ellis, 2008). Moreover, there is a lack of research exploring whether viewing experience prompts viewers to switch from one viewing mode (subtitles, captions, no on-screen text) to another and what factors affect those choices. This study explores learners’ perspectives on learning from audiovisual input and their preferred viewing mode before and after participating in a prolonged viewing intervention. A total of 136 participants of varying L2 English proficiency levels (from A1 to C2) completed pre-viewing and post-viewing questionnaires. The results show that vocabulary and expressions were perceived to be learnt the most. The elementary proficiency group were more likely to be positive about learning from the intervention than higher proficiency students. Concerning the preferred viewing mode outside of the classroom, the participants favoured no on-screen text or first language (L1) subtitles over L2 captions. At the end of the intervention, the elementary-level participants found that viewing without any L1 support was too challenging for leisure viewing, while the intermediate- and advanced-level students gained confidence in watching without any textual support.

The Impact of Filipina Domestic Workers on Hong Kong Primary School Children’s L2 English Spoken CAF and Reading Accuracy and Fluency

Abstract This study investigates the impact of Filipina domestic workers (FilDWs), a marginalized group in Hong Kong (HK), on HK children’s language development. It focusses on FilDWs’ influence on the second language (L2) English of bilingual HK primary school children attending an English Medium of Instruction school. The elements investigated are L2 English spoken complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF), and reading accuracy and fluency. Participants comprise 34 children (17 boys and 17 girls, mean age 8;11) from homes with FilDWs and 30 (15 boys and 15 girls, mean age 8;11) from homes with no FilDW. Participants completed an English reading and speaking task, and an English working memory capacity (WMC) test. Participants from households with FilDWs scored significantly higher on all aspects of both English language measures, while no significant differences for WMC were observed. These suggest that FilDWs exert a positive impact on children’s L2 English proficiency, placing them in a different position to the low status they are usually ascribed. These findings have implications for decolonizing and decentring language learning and teaching.

Exploring self-regulated vocabulary learning strategies, proficiency, working memory and vocabulary learning through word-focused exercises

ABSTRACT This study first validates a survey on self-regulated vocabulary learning strategies. It then examines the effects on the acquisition of new second language (L2) words from a reading text of three word-focused exercise conditions: reading + marginal glosses, reading + gap-fill and reading + sentence writing. It also evaluates the extent to which any effects can be predicted by three learner variables: self-regulated capacity in vocabulary learning, L2 English proficiency level, and working memory. Data were collected from 270 Chinese EFL students. Results confirmed the validity of the survey on self-regulated vocabulary learning strategies. Learners performed the best at learning new words on the immediate post-test for the condition of reading + sentence writing, followed by reading + gap-fill and reading + marginal glosses conditions. The three learner variables predicted the effectiveness of these three conditions for vocabulary learning. Our research thus confirms the benefits of word-focused exercises, particularly sentence writing with target words, for enhancing vocabulary learning, but also highlights that learner-related variables (self-regulated capacity, L2 proficiency, and working memory) need to be considered in order to maximise the effectiveness of word-focused exercises.

Development of interactional practices for initiating and extending small talk in service encounters

Research indicates the importance of small talk in achieving professional goals and promoting social relationships in workplaces, and yet second-language (L2) users often face challenges in participating in small talk. As such, the need for teaching small talk has been emphasized; however, the understanding of how L2 interactional practices for small talk develop remains limited. This study aims to demonstrate the change in L2 English practices used for initiating and extending small talk that occurred during service encounters over a thirty-month period. The data were gathered from 74 h of audiovisual recordings of service encounters at a small convenience store in Hawai'i. The focal participant is the service provider, a Korean adult with limited L2 English proficiency, who had emigrated from South Korea a year before the start of the data collection. By employing multimodal conversation analysis (CA) and the Pearson's chi-square test, the results of the study demonstrated three aspects of change in the service provider's practices for small talk: increasing the frequency of initiations, emerging new methods for initiation, and developing expansion techniques for small-talk sequences. The study advances the understanding of the development of multimodal L2 interactional practices for small talk in service encounters.

Exploring L2 English Proficiency and Translation of Academic English Vocabulary

Knowledge of academic English vocabulary is essential for upper secondary L2 English learners preparing for university studies, yet previous research suggests students in Scandinavian settings may need support to acquire this lexis (Edgarsson, 2017; Henriksen & Danelund, 2015). The abundance of Graeco-Latin cognates between European languages and academic English has been shown to lessen the learning burden of academic English vocabulary for speakers of Romance languages (Cobb, 2000; Petrescu et al., 2017). However, less research has been conducted for speakers of Scandinavian languages who also have appropriate translations of Germanic origin for this vocabulary. Interestingly, previous studies have indicated that proficient Norwegian-speaking students taking tertiary studies made extensive use of Graeco-Latin cognates when translating academic English vocabulary, but research has yet to expand this investigation to upper secondary students and across proficiency levels. Therefore, the current study investigated if Norwegian-speaking students (N= 132) in their first year of upper secondary education produced Graeco-Latin cognates when translating academic English. Findings showed extensive use of L1 Latinate cognate forms to translate the English target words. However, less proficient learners had significantly fewer cognate translations and significantly more untranslated target words than more proficient learners. Findings suggest that in-class instruction raising awareness of Graeco-Latin cognates in academic English may be worthwhile, especially for less-proficient learners.
 Keywords: Academic vocabulary, cognates, translation, English language learners, vocabulary knowledge, proficiency, educations

Does MOED Rhyme with FRUIT? An event-related potential study of cross-language rhyming.

The study aimed to characterize the event-related potentials signature elicited by visual rhyme judgements across two alphabetic orthographies that differ in depth (shallow: Dutch; deep: English) and by spelling-sound consistency in a deep L2-English orthography. Twenty-four Dutch-English bilinguals who varied on measures of L2-English proficiency, made rhyme judgments of semantically unrelated Dutch-English word pairs presented sequentially in the visual modality, while behavioral and electrophysiological responses were recorded. The spelling-sound consistency of target words was varied systematically. Nonrhyming targets elicited a larger N450 amplitude than rhyming targets, indicating sensitivity to mismatching phonology across languages. English target words with consistent spelling-sound mappings elicited less negative N250 amplitudes when preceded by rhyming Dutch primes. Overall, event-related potentials revealed robust responses to phonological mismatch, but subtle responses to spelling-sound inconsistency in L2-English. Results suggest that bilingual readers of a shallow L1 orthography who are immersed in an L1-speaking environment may not tune into the degree of spelling-sound consistency of a deep L2 orthography.

L2 collocation profiles and their relationship with vocabulary proficiency: A learner corpus approach

The current study extends extant research on lexical collocation and L2 English proficiency by analyzing how L2 argumentative writings assessed at different proficiency levels differ in their compositions of weakly and strongly associated collocations. Using a Natural Language Processing pipeline, a total of 640 essays from the ICNALE corpus (Ishikawa, 2018) were analyzed for word pairs that are syntactically related (e.g., Verb-Direct object), and the relationships between the relative proportions of collocations with varying strengths of association (SOA) and vocabulary proficiency scores were examined. A series of regression analyses revealed that collocations from various MI score bins showed distinct patterns of use across proficiency levels, indicating, for example, increases in the use of strongly associated collocations and decreases in the use of repelled collocations. The finding also indicated that band-based MI measures demonstrated better predictive validity than mean MI scores in modeling the vocabulary proficiency score.

Transition markers in Qatari university students' argumentative writing: A cross-linguistic analysis of L1 Arabic and L2 English

The current cross-linguistic study compares university students' use of transition markers (addition, compare/contrast, and consequence markers) in their L1 Arabic and L2 English argumentative writing. It also explores students' metalinguistic understanding of transition markers (TMs) through writing conversation interviews. We analysed the Qatari Corpus of Argumentative Writing (QCAW), which comprises 390 texts in L1 Arabic and L2 English written by the same Qatari undergraduate students. Using Hyland's (2005) model of metadiscourse, the findings revealed that frequencies of transition marker use among less proficient L2 English writers were closer to L1 Arabic. Based on the results of a writing proficiency test, low-proficiency students transferred overt strategies to signal transitions, supported by the interview findings. Interestingly, students with an average L2 English proficiency exhibited a greater variety in TMs. In contrast, higher-proficiency writers tended to use more complex and subtler means to indicate textual transitions. The students used TMs for different purposes. Lack of knowledge and writing under controlled conditions inhibited some participants from using TMs. The paper concludes with pedagogical implications for teaching and assessing TMs.

An investigation of high-proficiency L2 English speakers' oral test performance: A profiling approach

Linguistic profiles, which are often established through the measurement of linguistic features, are able to demonstrate characteristics shared by a specific type of text or a group of language learners. This paper examines the contexts and purposes related to profiling research in language studies, meanwhile synthesizing quantitative profiling methods such as cluster analysis, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and Factor Analysis (FA). A profiling study of high-proficiency L2 English speakers' test performance is also presented, which explains the profiling procedure in L2 speaking assessment. Cluster analysis conducted on speech fluency and vocabulary variables rendered four different speech profiles, which are associated with the speakers' L1 background and L2 English proficiency level. This paper also discusses the interpretation of linguistic profiles, as well as the statistical concerns involved in the profile construction process.

Metacognitive Awareness of Listening Strategies in Second and Third Language: The Role of Language Proficiency Across and Within Languages

ABSTRACT Metacognitive awareness of listening strategies has a supporting role in explaining L2 listening comprehension. Although metacognitive awareness is language-independent, language proficiency may determine whether learners can utilize such a cognitive resource during multiple language development. The current study explores the listening strategy awareness in the L2 and L3 through a 21-item questionnaire (i.e., Metacognitive Awareness of Listening Strategies Questionnaire, the MALQ), and its relationship with L3 listening comprehension. Data from 48 high L2 English proficiency students learning L3 Italian in Turkey indicate an overall higher awareness in L2 English. The reported awareness in the L2 and L3 strategies significantly differ in person knowledge and mental translation, but not in problem-solving, planning and evaluation, and directed attention. Beginner and intermediate L3 Italian learners do not differ in their metacognitive awareness in the L3 while only the L3 (but not L2) overall MALQ score significantly predicts L3 listening comprehension beyond L3 proficiency. These differing L2-L3 relationships across the MALQ subcomponents are discussed for language dependency in metacognitive awareness of listening strategies for multilingual language learners.

Individual Differences in Categorical Judgment of L2 Stops: A Link to Proficiency and Acoustic Cue-Weighting.

This study investigated individual differences in Korean adult learners' categorical perception of L2 English stops with an aim to explore the relationship of gradient categorizations to perceptual sensitivity to acoustic cues and L2 proficiency. Korean young adult L2 learners of English (N = 49) participated in two speech perception tasks (visual analog scaling and forced-choice identification) in which they listened to English voiced and voiceless stops and Korean lax and aspirated stops with Voice Onset Time (VOT) and F0 manipulated to form a continuum. It was found that in both L1 and L2 stop perception, listeners' gradient category judgment was associated with greater reliance on language-specific redundant cues (i.e., F0 in L2 English and VOT in L1 Korean) and that in the perception of L2 stops, categorical listeners who tended to be less sensitive to F0 were the ones with a higher level of L2 English proficiency. The results suggest that the categorical manner of judging L2 stops reflects learners' better knowledge of L2-specific acoustic cue-weightings, based on which less relevant acoustic information is effectively suppressed.

Textual Syntactic Complexity and Its Role In Second Language Reading Outcomes In Indonesia

This paper examines the role of syntactic complexity in L2 reading outcomes across different EFL proficiency levels in an Indonesian university. Indonesian university students (N = 148) at Intermediate and Advanced levels of proficiency read four English passages differing in syntactic complexity. The latter was measured by several widely used text modelling tools. Participants read two low and two high complexity texts and completed a post-test comprehension test. Syntactic complexity had a statistically significant but low magnitude effect size, accounting for 2%-5% of the variance of reading performance between the L2 English proficiency levels. There were also noticeable differences in text analysis measures across the different complexity tools. The usefulness of syntactic complexity as an isolated dimension of text complexity is evaluated. The contribution of this study to the field both in theory and practice is presented.

Textual Syntactic Complexity and Its Role In Second Language Reading Outcomes In Indonesia

This paper examines the role of syntactic complexity in L2 reading outcomes across different EFL proficiency levels in an Indonesian university. Indonesian university students (N = 148) at Intermediate and Advanced levels of proficiency read four English passages differing in syntactic complexity. The latter was measured by several widely used text modelling tools. Participants read two low and two high complexity texts and completed a post-test comprehension test. Syntactic complexity had a statistically significant but low magnitude effect size, accounting for 2%-5% of the variance of reading performance between the L2 English proficiency levels. There were also noticeable differences in text analysis measures across the different complexity tools. The usefulness of syntactic complexity as an isolated dimension of text complexity is evaluated. The contribution of this study to the field both in theory and practice is presented.

Relations Between L2 Proficiency and L1 Lexical Property Evaluations

The present study investigates the relations between L2-English proficiency and L1-Turkish lexical property evaluations. We asked whether L2 proficiency affects lexical properties, including imageability and concreteness ratings of 600 Turkish words selected from the Word Frequency Dictionary of Written Turkish. Seventy-two participants (L1-Turkish - L2-English) provided ratings of concreteness and imageability for 600 words on a 7-point scale. In order to assess their L2 proficiency, we administered Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-IV (PPVT-IV). We divided categories into two subcategories as high and low for the frequency, concreteness, imageability, and age of acquisition (AoA). The relationship between these subcategories and imageability-concreteness was examined by mixed effects linear regression analyses. We found that L2 proficiency and imageability ratings were positively correlated and specifically, this positive association was evident for low-frequency words and later acquired words. Results are in line with the interaction of bilingual representation under the dual-coding theory which suggests that bilinguals develop an interconnected imaginal representation for two languages as opposed to separate verbal representations. As L2 proficiency increased, the imageability also increased. These findings have implications for literature investigating the relationship between L2 proficiency and linguistic outcomes. Additionally, findings point to the importance of considering the L2 proficiency of participants when lexical tasks that involve cue words or word lists are used.

Knowledge is a river and education is like a stairway: An eye movement study on how L2 speakers process metaphors and similes

AbstractVery little is known about the processes underlying second language (L2) speakers’ understanding of written metaphors and similes. Moreover, most of the theories on figurative language comprehension do not consider reader-related factors. In the study, we used eye-tracking to examine how native Finnish speakers (N = 63) read written English nominal metaphors (“education is a stairway”) and similes (“education is like a stairway”). Identical topic–vehicle pairs were used in both conditions. After reading, participants evaluated familiarity of each pair. English proficiency was measured using the Bilingual-language Profile Questionnaire and the Lexical Test for Advanced Learners of English. The results showed that readers were more likely to regress within metaphors than within similes, indicating that processing metaphors requires more processing effort than processing similes. The familiarity of a metaphor and L2 English proficiency modulated this effect. The results are discussed in the light of current theories on figurative language processing.

Does L2 Proficiency Impact L2-L1 Transfer While Reading L1 Collocations? Evidence From Behavioral and ERP Data.

Multi-word expressions (MWEs) are fixed, conventional phrases often used by native speakers of a given language (L1). The type of MWEs investigated in this study were collocations. For bilinguals who have intensive contact with the second language (L2), collocational patterns can be transferred from the L2 to the L1 as a result of cross-linguistic influence (CLI). For example, bilingual migrants can accept collocations from their L2 translated to their L1 as correct. In this study, we asked whether such CLI is possible in native speakers living in the L1 environment and whether it depends on their L2 English proficiency. To this end, we created three lists of expressions in Polish: (1) well-formed Polish verb-noun collocations (e.g., ma sens – ∗has sense), (2) collocational calques from English (loan translations), where the English verb was replaced by a Polish translation equivalent (e.g., ∗robi sens – makes sense), and, as a reference (3) absurd verb-noun expression, where the verb did not collocate with the noun (e.g., ∗zjada sens – ∗eats sense). We embedded the three types of collocations in sentences and presented them to L1 Polish participants of varying L2 English proficiency in two experiments. We investigated whether L2 calques would (1) be explicitly judged as non-native in the L1; (2) whether they would evoke differential brain response than native L1 Polish equivalents in the event-related potentials (ERPs). We also explored whether the sensitivity to CLI in calques depended on participants’ level of proficiency in L2 English. The results indicated that native speakers of Polish assessed the calques from English as less acceptable than the correct Polish collocations. Still, there was no difference in online processing of correct and calques collocations as measured by the ERPs. This suggests a dissociation between explicit offline judgments and indices of online language processing. Interestingly, English L2 proficiency did not modulate these effects. The results indicate that the influence of English on Polish is so pervasive that collocational calques from this language are likely to become accepted and used by Poles.