L2 Learners Of English Research Articles

The Effects of Task Repetition on the Processing and Acquisition of Technical Vocabulary Through Video‐Lecture‐Based Tasks: A Mixed‐Methods Study

AbstractThis study investigated how repeating a video‐lecture‐based task affects second language (L2) learners’ processing and incidental acquisition of technical vocabulary as well as the relationship between processing and lexical gains. The participants were 75 Chinese learners of L2 English. Thirty participants performed the task once (control group), whereas another 30 participants did the same task three times (repetition group). The two groups then completed unannounced vocabulary posttests. The remaining participants engaged in stimulated recall after performing the task once, twice, or three times. The repetition group made greater gains in vocabulary knowledge than the control group, and the repetition group's visual attention to the target words declined during repeated viewing. The amount of attention to the target words emerged as a predictor of delayed meaning recall, with task repetition decreasing the strength of this relationship. Stimulated‐recall participants repeating the task reported increased awareness of specific aspects of the target words.

Stance-taking through APPRAISAL in L1 and L2 English argumentative essays: insights from Vietnamese L2 English

Abstract Stance-taking in academic writing is now a well-established topic of interest in English language research, with explorations across a range of theoretical frameworks including metadiscourse and systemic functional linguistics (SFL). This includes studies investigating second language (L2) stance-taking, particularly those comparing stance features deployed by L1 and L2 English writers. However, studies investigating stance-taking using the APPRAISAL framework for evaluative discursive language across L1 and L2 production are relatively rare. Incorporating the APPRAISAL framework into research on stance-taking enhances our comprehension of evaluative language in academic writing, especially when it comes to cross-linguistic contexts. It also provides useful advantages for language assessment and instruction. In this learner corpus-assisted discourse study, APPRAISAL was used to determine how L1 English speakers and L2 English learners from L1 Vietnamese backgrounds expressed attitudes through their written texts. We also investigate the relationship between use of APPRAISAL resources and expert raters’ perceptions of written stance via a stance rubric. Findings show L2 English students are more explicit in argumentative writing than L1 English writers, despite fewer APPRAISAL choices in L2 texts. Besides, while high-rated texts were associated with more judgemental evaluation and invocation, more personal feelings were expressed in low-rated texts. These findings have implications for the instruction of L2 writers in conveying attitudinal meanings in text, as well as for raters tasked with assessing L2 academic essays for stance.

Pragmatic competence and pragmatic tolerance in foreign language acquisition—revisiting the case of scalar implicatures

Abstract Previous L2 studies used binary Truth-Value-Judgment (TVJ) tasks to investigate L1–L2 differences in scalar implicature derivation (some X implicates some but not all X). They examined participants’ judgments of sentences with weak scalar expressions (“Timothy ate some of the pretzels”) when stronger ones are true (“Timothy ate all of the pretzels”). Some studies indicate adult L2 learners are less likely than L1 users to accept such statements while others found the opposite, concluding that implicature derivation is “costly” for L2 learners, rendering them less pragmatically competent than L1 users. Importantly, related L1 research suggests that TVJ tasks only capture sensitivity to under-informativeness. This sensitivity might be completely overridden by metalinguistic attitudes in binary tasks, whereas graded tasks reveal nuanced judgment patterns. Exploring L2 response behaviors, we tested English L1 speakers and competent German L2 English learners using binary and graded tasks. In both tasks, we found evidence of pragmatic responding with no evidence of differences between groups. Bayes factor analyses of the graded data favored H0 over the hypotheses that L2 learners provide fewer or more rejections to under-informative input than L1 learners. We explore implications for L2 learners’ pragmatic abilities, differences with previous studies, and the role of TVJ tasks in under-informative contexts.

Grammaticality in Writing Skills of L2 English Learners: Challenges in Pakistani Academic Setting

This study examines how second-language English learners' grammar issues differ in rural and urban Pakistani schools. This study is quasi-experimental. The study uses a quantitative approach and SPSS-analyzed writing test samples. The key findings reveal that pupils struggle to understand complicated syntactic structures like qualifiers, adjectives, adverbs, and adjunct and complement categories, even though they understand subject-verb agreement. Lack of resources and poor language education exacerbate these issues in rural areas. Teachers emphasize the need for the government to improve English grammar education and the necessity for custom learning aids to help rural students with their particular issues in grammar and syntax. Teachers also want enhanced professional development to master advanced grammar teaching methods. Students expressed mixed confidence in their grammatical skills since they were unsure how well they comprehended complex grammar principles. To assist students in comprehending and using grammar rules, the study recommends adding more interactive and relevant grammar assignments to courses and using the process-genre technique. The results also demonstrate the need for teachers to continue to study and have support networks to ensure good language sessions. Policy suggestions include equipping schools, especially rural ones, modifying the curriculum, and funding teacher training. This study enhances Pakistani second language learners' academic and employment prospects by identifying grammar issues and providing writing tips. Thus, it expands ESL instruction.

Instrumental Motivation and Self-Efficacy of Indonesian L2 Learners of English: Does Gender Play a Role?

Extensive research on second and foreign language learning suggests that gender can significantly influence language acquisition. While some studies indicate that female learners often outperform males in language tasks, the evidence is inconsistent, and findings may vary depending on the learning context. This highlights the need to explore further how gender interacts with other factors, such as motivation and self-efficacy, in shaping L2 learning outcomes. This study explores how gender affects learners' instrumental motivation and self-efficacy in learning English as a second language. A total of 144 L2 learners from non-English departments at a private university in Java, Indonesia, participated in this research, which utilized a survey design. Paper-based questionnaires were distributed to participants, who were recruited through convenience sampling. The findings revealed that female learners reported slightly higher levels of instrumental motivation (Mean female = 43.40) than male learners (Mean score-male = 42.78). However, the difference was not statistically significant, t= .86, p = .15. In terms of self-efficacy, male learners demonstrated marginally higher levels (Mean score-male = 47.71) than females (Mean score-female = 46.32), but again, this difference was not statistically significant, t= -1.48, p = .14. These findings suggest that, while gender differences in motivation and self-efficacy are often highlighted in L2 research, their impact may vary based on specific learning contexts. Further research is needed, incorporating additional learner variables, to clarify the complex relationship between gender and L2 learning outcomes.

That-trace effects in Najdi Arabic L2 learners of English

Abstract The current study is a partial replication of Kim and Goodall (2024), who tested competing predictions of two prominent accounts of that-trace effects, which are argued to emerge due to either syntactic constraints or considerations of the production system. To tease apart these possibilities, Kim and Goodall examine L2 sensitivity to that-trace effects, as the two accounts implicitly have different expectations regarding L2 performance. Their results showed a non-native pattern of acceptability judgments for Korean and Spanish learners of English, whose L1s do not display that-trace effects, which are argued to support a production-based account. The current study extends their experiment to Nadji Arabic L2 learners of English, whose L1 critically exhibits that-trace effects, allowing us to probe whether previous findings can be accounted for by processing difficulties or L1 background. Our results indicated that despite L2 learners’ native-like sensitivity at the group level, lower proficiency was associated with non-native-like subject extraction effects, in line with Kim and Goodall’s results. Overall, findings from an acceptability judgment task suggest that L2 sensitivity to that-trace effects does not involve transfer of a syntactic constraint, but is something that develops with proficiency, more in line with a production-based account.

Modeling L2 motivation change and its predictive effects on learning behaviors in the extramural digital context: a quantitative investigation in China

Abstract Language learning in the extramural digital (ED) context has recently gained momentum because it focuses on second language (L2) learners’ autonomous, unstructured, online learning activities beyond the classroom. Drawing upon Dörnyei’s L2 motivational self system (including the ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience) to operationalize L2 learners’ motivational mindsets, this study aims to investigate whether L2 English learners’ ought-to L2 self can be translated into their ideal L2 self and predict learning behaviors within the ED context. Survey data from 310 undergraduate students in a top-tier Chinese university were collected and analyzed following a structural equation modeling approach. The results indicate that participants’ ought-to L2 self can facilitate the development of their ideal L2 self only through the full mediation effect of the L2 learning experience in the ED environment. Also, while students’ ought-to L2 self cannot directly predict their motivated learning behaviors in the ED context, there exists a significant indirect impact through the joint mediation of the L2 learning experience and ideal L2 self. These findings contribute to the ongoing conversation about L2 motivational dynamics by unveiling the conversion and interaction of different L2 motivational forces in digital and out-of-class settings.

More foreign-accented but more comprehensible: Attrition and amelioration of L1 speech in proficient L2 learners.

There is an increasing interest in cross-linguistic influences of the second language (L2) on the first (L1), but its communicative impact remains to be elucidated. This study investigates how L2 learners' L1 pronunciation is perceived as foreign-accented and (in) comprehensible as a function of their L2 learning experience and proficiency levels. Read speech of 154 L1 Japanese learners of L2 English in the J-AESOP corpus was examined, where approximately one-third of them had lived in English-speaking countries and the rest had never lived outside of Japan. Their L1 speech was rated by another group of native Japanese listeners for accentedness and comprehensibility (from October 25, 2022 to August 20, 2023), while their L2 speech was previously rated by native American English listeners for nativelikeness or proficiency. The speakers' vowel acoustics were also examined. More proficient L2 speakers were perceived as more foreign-accented in their L1, but only if they had lived overseas; their length of residence abroad predicted the degree of perceived accentedness. In contrast, more proficient L2 speakers were consistently perceived as more comprehensible in the L1, regardless of prior overseas experience. Acoustic analyses indicated that perceived accentedness is associated with a clockwise chain shift of all vowel categories in the vowel space. It was also revealed that the dispersion, rather than compactness, of vowel production contributed to perceived comprehensibility, although the degree of L1 vowel dispersion did not predict L2 proficiency. The overall results suggest two main conclusions. First, perceptible L1 foreign accent likely results from L1 disuse rather than L2 interference, thereby L1 pronunciation differs from native norms at a system-wide rather than category-specific level. Second, L2 learning has a positive influence on perceived L1 comprehensibility, rather than individuals with clearer and more comprehensible L1 speech being inherently better L2 learners.

Enhancing Second Language Speech: The Roles Of Task Repetition And Planning In Improving L2 English Production

This paper explores the impact of task repetition and planning conditions on the complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) of second language (L2) speech production. By conducting a case study on an L2 English learner, the study investigates how the learner's speech performance is characterized under the CAF construct and how it is affected by task repetition, the absence of pre-task planning, and the presence of unpressured within-task planning. The study employs various measures to assess lexical and grammatical complexity, accuracy, and fluency. The findings suggest that while the lack of pre-task planning did not completely compromise complexity, accuracy remained low despite the unpressured within-task planning condition, and fluency was negatively impacted. However, task repetition led to improvements in all three dimensions of CAF. The paper concludes with pedagogical implications for L2 instruction, highlighting the importance of strategic and guided pre-task planning, multiple-task repetitions, and learner self-evaluation to enhance CAF in L2 speech production.

Patterns of interaction in a paired speaking test: comparing L1 and L2 interactions

The shift of focus from a cognitive to social view has drawn the attention of second language assessment researchers to delve into interactional competence as an intriguing topic in paired oral tests. To fill the gap on how interactional patterns compare across L1 and L2 interactions this study was specifically set to explore and compare 45 paired interactions of L1 English speakers, L1 Persian speakers, and L2 English learners. While the findings indicated that the collaborative pattern was the most common pattern in the three groups less than half of the interactions in total were collaborative. Furthermore, not all the interactional patterns were found in all the groups. The frequency and prominence of the common patterns also varied. The findings could be explained by cultural norms of speech (e.g., in taking turns) and interlocutor effects (e.g., dominating the conversation or adopting a passive role). The findings imply challenges for fair assessment when using paired tasks as assessment tools. Furthermore, the findings call for rubric development and rater training programs to include description and discussion of interactional patterns to help raters improve their understanding and rating of paired interactions.

Mapping the associations among task complexity, emotionality, and linguistic complexity in L2 writing

This study explored the relationship between task complexity, textual emotionality, and linguistic complexity in second language (L2) writing. Fifty-eight L2 English learners performed simple and complex versions of an argumentative writing task manipulated along with resource-­directing variables. The essays were first analysed for textual emotionality with sentiment analysis and then examined using a set of lexical and syntactic complexity and cohesiveness indices. Regarding emotionality, the complex task elicited more positive and negative emotions than the simple task. Further, the complex task led to greater lexical complexity and cohesiveness than the simple task, but the two tasks were not statistically different from each other in terms of syntactic complexity features. Varied patterns of correlations were observed between emotionality metrics and indices of different dimensions of linguistic complexity in the two tasks. Our findings focusing on the intersections of cognitive, socio-emotive, and linguistic components suggest that different task complexity manipulations could generate varying cognitive demands, affecting L2 written production. These findings provide theoretical and pedagogical implications for TBLT researchers and L2 writing practitioners.

Enhancing the processing advantage: two psycholinguistic investigations of formulaic expressions in Chinese as a second language

Abstract The Holistic Hypothesis asserts that formulaic expressions (FEs) are processed more rapidly than non-formulaic expressions (non-FE items) by both native speakers (NSs) and L2 learners of English. This study utilized an acceptability judgment task and a self-paced reading task to investigate the online processing of FEs and non-FE items among bilingual speakers (L1 English, L2 Chinese) in both contextual and non-contextual conditions. Meanwhile, a familiarity rating task was employed to measure whether there is a familiarity effect in item processing. The results consistently provided support for the Holistic Hypothesis, indicating that learners of Chinese at each level exhibited faster processing of FEs compared to non-FE items, regardless of the presence or absence of context. However, the influence of item familiarity, rather than the proficiency effect, contributed to the improvement of L2 learners’ eventual processing abilities. Distinct patterns also emerged when comparing data from NSs and L2 learners of Chinese, highlighting L2 learners’ more pronounced processing advantage, characterized by faster response times (RTs) to FEs compared to non-FE items. Through an analysis of Chinese L2 data, this study sheds light on the interplay between the usage based approach and chunking within the cognitive approach to L2 learning.

Gamified-flipped English classes and L2 learners’ achievement and perceptions

ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigate the benefits of incorporating gamification within a flipped English classroom to evaluate the resulting synergies on language learners’ overall L2 achievement (grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension) and their perceptions of this didactic approach. A total of 327 lower-intermediate L2 learners were assigned into three groups: gamified-flipped class (GFC), flipped, and control. All participants engaged in numerous L2 activities during the intervention, but the gamified-flipped and flipped groups accessed them via the Moodle learning management system before each session. The gamification plug-in was activated just for the gamified-flipped group members. An explanatory mixed research method was employed using pre-and post-tests of English, a Learning Experience Questionnaire (LEQ), and a written self-report survey. The results revealed that the gamified-flipped intervention significantly enhanced language learners’ L2 achievement across all three components. Moreover, learners perceived this class as fun, traceable, collaborative, and engaging though needed an excessive workload. These findings highlight the potential of using a gamified, free learning management system to improve language acquisition. They also emphasize the importance of considering students' workloads and individual differences when implementing gamification strategies.

Examining Foreign Language Learners’ Speaking Anxiety: The Case of English L2 Learners

Examining speaking anxiety in learners of foreign languages is important not only for the learners but also for teachers and curriculum designers. The study aimed to examine foreign language learners’ speaking anxiety in 100 M.A. students at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University in Saudi Arabia. The survey was directed to M.A. students. The study used the PSCAS. The findings demonstrated that a variety of factors, including a limited vocabulary, pronunciation difficulties, social pressure, a lack of confidence, and negative past experiences, might contribute to speaking anxiety. Together, these components create a complex web of worry that keeps students from being open to vocal communication. However, the study also discovered several practical strategies that M.A. candidates could employ to boost their speaking confidence and lessen their speaking anxiety. These strategies included role-playing games, conversations in small groups, the use of technology, group projects involving collaborative speaking, regular constructive criticism, availability of interactive language labs, practical language application, progressively more difficult assignments, cultural immersion programs, and workshops on public speaking. By using these strategies, students can establish a supportive learning environment that promotes language proficiency and confidence. Based on the findings of this study, several recommendations were proposed, such as integration of supportive learning environments, utilization of technology, implementation of practical language application, training in public speaking, gradual complexity in assignments, and promotion of positive thinking.

The effects of task complexity on linguistic complexity and perception in English native speakers’ and L2 speakers’ argumentative writing

This study investigates how task complexity affects native speakers’ and second language (L2) learners’, and experts’ perceptions of task difficulty in writing tasks. It also explores how task complexity influences English native speakers’ and L2 learners’ linguistic complexity in their writing. Ninety participants performed one simple and one complex argumentative writing task manipulated by task complexity (± elements and reasoning demands) and counterbalanced. Their essays were analyzed using linguistic complexity metrics. The results showed that English native speakers, L2 learners, and experts perceived the complex task as requiring more mental effort, being more stressful, and creating more planning and writing time pressure than the simple task. The native speakers demonstrated greater overall linguistic complexity than the L2 learners in the two writing tasks. However, both English native speakers and L2 learners produced longer T-units and more diverse vocabulary in the complex task than in the simple task but also produced more syntactically similar structures in the complex task. Significant interaction effects of group (L1 and L2) and task (± elements and reasoning demands) were found for five linguistic complexity metrics. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed in light of Robinson’s cognition hypothesis and Hayes’s writing model.

Transfer of affective connotations in the basic lexicon of Spanish learners of L2 English

This study addresses emotion in second languages with the aim of understanding how late bilinguals incorporate the affective connotations of core vocabulary into their mental lexicon. Specifically, it examines whether there are emotionality differences between the L2 and the native languages of reference, and whether linguistic competence, contact with the L2 and its culture, and attitudes explain the different tendencies. For this purpose, a group of Spanish learners of L2 English assessed a corpus of 300 words on the affective dimensions of valence and arousal. Different statistical analyses showed that English learners value the lexical repertoire in a very similar way to Spanish speakers, differing markedly from English speakers. It is mainly concluded that the mother tongue exerts a significant influence on this perceptual process and that the emotional connotations of the L2 are incorporated into the mental lexicon through translations from the L1 as a result of an emotional transfer.

Instrumental Motivation and L2 Speaking Achievement of Indonesian L2 Learners of English: A Survey Study

The present study aimed to assess the level of instrumental motivation among Indonesian university students learning English as a second or foreign language and examined how it impacts learners’ speaking achievements. Participants included 188 students majoring in non-English disciplines. Through descriptive statistics, the study found that learners had a generally high level of instrumental motivation. They reported high motivation levels linked to academic success, overseas vacations, self-improvement, and notably, future career prospects. Despite this general trend, their motivation to learn English to gain respect was rather low. Through a bivariate linear regression, the study further found that learners’ instrumental motivation barely influenced their L2 speaking achievement contributing to only 0.3% of the variance. These findings suggest nuanced pedagogical implications, underscoring the need for targeted motivational strategies in language education. Further research is recommended to explore these dynamics in different contexts.

The development of L2 collocational familiarity and its relationship with collocational frequency and congruency.

The present study took L2 English learners of different levels in China as subjects to investigate the relationship between collocational familiarity and collocational frequency as well as L1-L2 congruency, and then explored the development of the above relationship as L2 proficiency develops. The results showed that: a moderate positive correlation existed between familiarity and frequency, and the correlation increased with proficiency; a moderate positive correlation also existed between familiarity and congruency, but the correlation decreased with proficiency. Based on previous studies and the present findings, the research group infer that: low familiarity collocations tend to be represented and processed in analytic way and same-translation effect helps accelerate the semantic access of congruent collocations in this process; with the increase in learners' proficiency, collocation familiarity develops from low to high with frequency effect; high familiarity collocations tend to be represented and processed in holistic way to have direct semantic access; furthermore, learners of two levels have two kinds of collocational representation and semantic access, but low-level learners show more analytic representation and indirect semantic access because of having more low familiarity collocations in the mental lexicon.

Interaction Between Self-Efficacy and Instrumental Motivation among Indonesian L2 Learners of English

The present study intended to investigate second/foreign language (L2) learners’ level of instrumental motivation and the extent to which it predicted their self-efficacy. A survey method was used. It involved 144 Indonesian L2 learners of English from seven non-English departments through a convenience sampling. Through descriptive statistics, this study found that the instrumental motivation associated with future professions, academic success, and practical reasons were all high. Through bivariate linear regression, the study also found that learners’ instrumental motivation significantly predicted their self-efficacy, being able to explain 22.2% of its total variance. Implications include promoting in L2 instruction meaningful and relevant real-world tasks for learners whose majors are not English so that they are willing to invest more time and effort for L2 learning success and gradually build their self-efficacy. Examples of activities include using English for job opportunities, passing exams, or meeting language requirements. For classes with learners from various disciplines, teachers could also allow some freedom in choosing topics or tasks. This study might provide an overview of the relationship between instrumental motivation and self-efficacy, serving as a foundation for future research in this area. Limitations are stated alongside the suggested directions for relevant future studies in the field of instrumental motivation and self-efficacy.

Evaluating the effectiveness of a computerised dynamic assessment of L2 English email requests

Automated writing evaluation can be effective in providing support for L2 English learners. However, little research to date has investigated its use in the teaching of pragmatics in relation to L2 email writing, grounded in a sociocultural perspective on learning. We employ a quasi-experimental approach, investigating the effectiveness of a computerised dynamic assessment programme (C-DA) of L2 email writing, focusing on pragmatic development. The C-DA employs a developmentally sensitive approach, providing automated, immediate mediation to learners. The C-DA was administered twice – with a two-week delay between administrations – to a single group of 17 Japanese English L2 learner participants at a Japanese university; participants were 19–22 years of age with intermediate L2 proficiency levels. Text, identified pragmatic failure and mediation data were elicited from both administrations. Analysis of pragmatic failure frequency and explicitness of the mediation necessary for successful resolution of the identified pragmatic failure shows both frequency and explicitness decreasing not only within a round of administration, but also between rounds. Evidence of learner development was found across all types of pragmatic failure, including the requesting head act, email openings and closings. The study provides evidence to support a sociocultural approach to assessment and learning with regards to the pragmatics aspect of L2 email writing, in which mediation is sensitive to individual learners’ developmental needs. Further, findings support the use of a computerised approach to DA focusing on pragmatic competence, allowing for wider access to DA methodology among large learner group contexts.