L2 Teaching Research Articles

A critical review of instructional-effect studies of past tense-aspect: language development and pedagogical implications

ABSTRACT This paper explores the potential of studies on instructed second language acquisition to inform pedagogical practices for L2 teaching. It focuses on instructional-effect studies published between 2000 and 2024 that examined the acquisition of perfective and imperfective past tense in L2 Spanish, French, and Catalan. Eleven studies were selected based on pretest-posttest designs and evidence of interlanguage development in past morphology. Key findings indicate that perfective forms are typically acquired earlier and more robustly than imperfective forms, regardless of instructional approach or language. The analysis reveals consistent acquisition patterns, suggesting that effective teaching practices can be derived from these studies. Pedagogical implications emphasize the importance of targeted instruction, exposure to both prototypical and nonprototypical form-meaning mappings, and extended learning time for acquiring complex tense-aspect systems. The paper concludes with recommendations for bridging the gap between second language acquisition research and classroom practice, particularly in teaching tense and aspect in Romance languages.

Predicting Papiamento and Dutch reading comprehension development in a post-colonial context

Abstract The current research aims to predict L1 Papiamento and L2 Dutch reading comprehension development in 180 children in the upper primary grades (4–6) in a post-colonial Caribbean context from initial language of decoding instruction, cognitive and linguistic child characteristics, and linguistic transfer. Overall, children showed better reading comprehension proficiency in L1 as compared to L2 Dutch. Over the grades, strong autoregression effects in reading comprehension development in both languages were evidenced. Language of decoding instruction was found to predict L2 reading comprehension, but not L1 reading comprehension. The development of L2 reading comprehension showed better outcomes in the case of initial decoding instruction in L2. Word decoding, reading vocabulary, and grammar in respectively L1 and L2 were related to L1 and L2 reading comprehension in Grade 4, while L2 reading comprehension was additionally related to L2 basic oral vocabulary. Moreover, only reading vocabulary was related to L1 and L2 reading comprehension development across the grades. Finally, evidence of cross-linguistic interdependencies in the development of reading comprehension in L1 and L2 was found.

Enhancing advanced vocabulary in EFL writing: an AI-assisted intervention for English studies students in Poland

Abstract Effective use of advanced vocabulary is crucial for higher-level English language learners, particularly as they progress towards C1 proficiency according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). However, incorporating sufficiently sophisticated vocabulary in writing remains challenging for many learners. This quasi-experimental study investigated the effectiveness of an AI-assisted intervention designed to enhance awareness and use of advanced vocabulary among B2 level first-year English Studies students in Poland (n = 71). The intervention, integrated into regular coursework over five sessions, included exposure to advanced vocabulary through reading, explicit instruction on word proficiency levels, and opportunities for vocabulary use in writing. Data were collected through summary writing and word recognition tasks. The CEFR checker, an AI-based text analyser, was employed to identify C1+ and B2 level vocabulary in students’ writing. Results revealed modest but noticeable improvements in both the use and recognition of C1+ and B2 level vocabulary over time. The study also found changing correlations between vocabulary use and recognition across sessions, particularly for C1+ words. These findings highlight the potential of AI-assisted instruction in enhancing advanced vocabulary among higher proficiency EFL learners. The study contributes to the growing body of CALL literature on AI-assisted L2 instruction and opens avenues for further research on new pedagogical approaches to facilitate advanced vocabulary development in EFL writing.

Ramifications of flipped classroom model on second language teachers’ professional identity in Turkish tertiary hybrid education context

As the traditional teaching paradigm is reversed in Flipped Classroom Model (FCM), it has the potential to empower the teacher to allocate more valuable face-to-face classroom time for productive language tasks. Digital flipped course contents encourage the students and the teacher to take advantage of becoming a member in an online learning community and engage in a social-constructive learning approach. Such a profound shift from the traditional teaching and learning paradigm may influence the identity progression of L2 teachers. This longitudinal study aims to explore the ramifications of flipped grammar teaching on four L2 teachers’ identity progression over the course of two academic years within the three fundamental modes of belonging for identity formation, namely engagement, alignment, and imagination, identified by Wenger (1999) at tertiary level. Methodological triangulation was adopted to boost the transferability and reliability of the findings. Semi-structured interviews provided in-depth insights into the four L2 teachers’ relational thinking about flipped grammar teaching and their professional identity progression. The data also included four hours of classroom observations to witness the real-life implications of teachers’ accounts. The twofold data was analyzed using deductive content analysis. The results indicated that English teachers need to make long lasting and conscious efforts towards a reconciliation between their existing identities and FCM. The teachers not only need to find accommodation strategies to ensure better integration of reluctant students into FCM but also overcome their own accuracy-based exam anxiety as they redefine their grammar identities incorporating FCM.

The impact of social media and gamification of a mobile vocabulary learning app: Self-regulation and learning persistence

Scholars indicated that learners who are strategic with their language learning (e.g., self-regulated learning (SRL), cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies) tend to be more efficient, resourceful, and flexible, and thus have better language learning outcomes (Oxford, 2016; Heo et al., 2012; Plonsky, 2011). Besides focusing on knowledge, language learners, as L2 teachers already do, need to prepare themselves with self-regulated learning skills, so they can achieve the target language learning outcomes. This study selected Shanbay Danci (SBDC), a popular mobile vocabulary application (Wang, 2020, Su & Su, 2015), as the intervention. SBDC allows learners to share not only information about their goals but also badges (a gamification feature) demonstrating their learning outcomes. To explore the impacts of the badge-sharing feature on learners’ perceived self-regulation level, vocabulary learning persistence, and self-regulated learning experiences, a total of 77 undergraduates, who were enrolled in College English courses at a Chinese institution, participated in the study. Results showed participants in the badge-sharing group (experimental) tended to have significantly higher SRL levels (e.g., better management of time and the learning environment, being more strategic in completing tasks, selecting an appropriate learning environment, setting learning goals, and self-evaluating their learning progress) than those in the control group who were not enrolled in any badge sharing group. Moreover, those in the badge-sharing group demonstrated higher persistence in learning vocabulary, with a completion rate of 70%, versus 56% in the control group. Qualitative results indicated that badge sharing enhanced learners’ self and shared regulation capacity in the process of learning vocabulary.

Raising EFL teachers’ awareness of L2 pragmatic teaching via teacher professional development: the impact of an effective training workshop

Second language (L2) pragmatics has been identified to be under-represented in EFL textbooks and generally neglected in English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching curriculums and teacher training programs despite its well-established status in L2 teaching research. Adopting the repeated measures design, this study examines the effectiveness of a professional development (PD) event in L2 pragmatics teaching for Vietnamese EFL high school teachers. Its effect was measured using pre-training and post-training questionnaires completed by 43 participating teachers. The findings showed that the training workshop exhibited positive effects in raising the teachers’ awareness of L2 pragmatics and its teaching and enhancing their knowledge of these areas. Furthermore, the PD intervention resulted in a potential model for effective PD in the form of training workshops in low-resource contexts like Vietnam. The study thereby implies the need for more PD activities in L2 pragmatics teaching so that L2 pragmatics could be included in EFL classrooms in a principled and systematic way.

Pedagogical Translanguaging in L2 Teaching for Adult Migrants: Assessing Feasibility and Emotional Impact

Pedagogical Translanguaging in L2 Teaching for Adult Migrants: Assessing Feasibility and Emotional Impact

Social virtual reality for L2 Spanish development: Learning how to interact with others in a high‐immersion virtual space

AbstractResearch indicates that high‐immersion virtual reality (VR) has several unique affordances for language learning that contribute to learning outcomes, such as boosting learners’ confidence, engagement, and motivation. However, little is known about the extent to which VR promotes language skills, in particular learners’ verbal interaction using a second language (L2). The present study uses an intervention design to examine the impact of high‐immersion VR on L2 Spanish learners’ interactional development and perceptions of VR experience. Twenty‐six beginning‐level Spanish learners engaged in four social VR sessions over a 2‐week period. Learners’ perceptions of social VR were assessed through surveys and focus group interviews, and their changes in interaction‐involved language performance were evaluated. The results reinforce previous research in showing that learners felt a heightened sense of presence in VR and that interacting in Spanish in the immersive virtual space was more enjoyable and less nerve‐wracking than face‐to‐face conversation, albeit equally beneficial to learning. Quantitative analyses of learners’ interaction revealed significant improvement in terms of their engagement, clarity, and content appropriateness. However, participants reported that technical issues could at times limit the pedagogical usefulness of VR. These findings reinforce the use of social VR in L2 instruction and provide novel insights about performance gains and Spanish L2 pedagogy in a virtual space.

Emotions at the Heart of Tensions: A Transcendental Phenomenology of Iranian EFL Teachers’ Intra‐ and Interpersonal Emotional Tensions and Regulation Strategies

ABSTRACTTeachers constantly face tensions from different sources in L2 education. However, there is a yawning gap of knowledge on L2 teachers’ intrapersonal and interpersonal emotional tensions and associated regulatory strategies in English as a foreign language (EFL) setting. To fill this gap, the current investigation took a phenomenological approach to unveil the perceptions and experiences of a cohort of 20 Iranian EFL teachers concerning intra‐ and interpersonal emotional tensions and their regulation strategies employed to manage such tensions. A semi‐structured interview and an autobiographical narrative were utilized to glean the data. The results obtained by MAXQDA software (v.2020) divulged a range of emotional tensions at both intrapersonal and interpersonal levels. At the intrapersonal level, the participants purported to experience burnout, anxiety, self‐doubt, pressure, and frustration. Concerning interpersonal emotional tensions, they frequently stated that they grappled with collaboration problems with colleagues, stakeholders’ high expectations, and strict institutional rules and relations. To manage such tensions, the participants had used different preventive and responsive emotion regulation strategies with preventive ones being more common. The findings are discussed in detail and some conclusions and implications are enumerated for EFL teachers and teacher educators regarding emotionality and L2 education.

Pre-service teachers' understanding of teaching L2 French interactional competence through TBLT: Insights from task design processes and post-implementation reflections

This paper reports on a university seminar for pre-service teachers (PST) of L2 French in which a conversation analytic concept of language use was combined with the methodology of task-based language teaching (TBLT) to teach L2 interactional competence (L2 IC). In the course, participants carried out a needs analysis, designed pedagogical tasks that focused on teaching L2 IC and trialed them in real classrooms before evaluating both their tasks' success and their own learning process. In a post-hoc study, data gathered from the course including pre-design comments, written design rationales, audio recordings of the group design meetings, oral and written feedback and post-implementation comments were analyzed using Qualitative Content Analysis to find out in what respects the PST's cognition with regard to teaching L2 IC changed during the seminar. The results show that there were some dynamics in the PST's cognition, particularly regarding their view of learner factors in task accomplishment and the targeting of specific social actions. Other aspects of PST's cognition remained more stable as their initial beliefs were confirmed by the task design process.

Influence of topic-prominent L1s on the use of L2 English copula be: a corpus-based study

Abstract This study explores the influence of first language (L1) on the acquisition of second language (L2) English, specifically examining the use of copula be as a topic marker. Although prior research suggests that L1 transfer may impact L2 acquisition of copula be, the evidence remains inconclusive. To address this issue, the study analyzes the use of be in L2 English spoken by learners with topic-prominent L1s (viz., Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, Korean) and those with non-topic-prominent L1s (viz., Filipino). Using the ICNALE corpus, the study investigates whether L1 topic-prominence affects the use of be in L2 English. The findings reveal that L2-English learners with topic-prominent L1s use copula be more often with definite NPs than those with non-topic-prominent L1s, indicating the influence of L1 topic-prominence properties on the use of copula be. Additionally, learners from topic-prominent L1s more frequently produce nontargetlike topic-comment structures using be verb (e.g., restaurant is many people eat their foods). Based on these findings, the study discusses the implication of L1 transfer effects in L2 acquisition and emphasizes the importance of a more global and refined understanding of language variation in L2 teaching and learning.

Longitudinal interactions of L2 learners’ motivations and strategic behavior in strategies-based writing instruction

Abstract Strategic behavior for self-regulated learning (SRL) is crucial for academic success in L2 writing. Yet little is known about how learners’ motivation-related factors develop as their strategic behavior progresses during classroom instruction in L2 writing contexts. Informed by SRL theory, this longitudinal case study adopted multiple assessment approaches to explicating the development trajectories of two Chinese L2 writers’ motivational factors relating to expectancy, value, and goal orientation (i.e., self-efficacy, task value, and goal orientations) and strategic behavior in the classroom ecology of self-regulation strategies-based instruction. Participants were one high-proficiency writer and one low-proficiency writer who were enrolled in the self-regulation strategies-based writing course. They voluntarily participated in this study and completed semi-structured interviews and reflective journals at the beginning (T1), the middle (T2), and the end of the instruction (T3). Field notes were used to complement the primary data sources. The qualitative analyses revealed both students’ limited understanding of SRL strategies at the initial stage. Their strategic behavior progressed with the social and metacognitive scaffolding at T2, but only the high-proficiency writer sustained active engagement at T3. With different goal orientations and linguistic self-efficacy at the initial stage, both students reported noticeable increases in their intrinsic goal orientation, task value, and self-efficacy in classroom performance at T2 and T3. Their motivational states were also affected by linguistic proficiency, metacognitive scaffolding, and social interactions during the instruction. This study is expected to provide insights into how L2 writers’ strategic behavior progresses with their changes in motivations.

Which factors predict teachers’ evaluation of the difficulty and usefulness of phrasal verbs in L2 contexts?

Abstract Research examining teachers’ cognition of lexical items has flourished in the past few years. However, most of these studies focused on individual words rather than formulaic sequences. The present study aims to fill this gap through eliciting teachers’ evaluation of one type of formulaic sequences: phrasal verbs (PVs). The aim is to examine factors (frequency, opacity, and learners’ receptive and productive knowledge) that might predict teachers’ evaluation of the difficulty and usefulness of 100 PV senses. For that purpose, a survey was administered to 174 teachers. Results of generalized mixed-effects modelling showed that teachers’ assessment of both the usefulness and difficulty of PVs was predicted by sense-specific corpus frequency and receptive knowledge of these PV senses. Moreover, difficulty ratings were additionally affected by opacity and productive knowledge of PVs. We discuss these findings in relation to previous research on L2 PV knowledge and implications for L2 teaching practice.

The Relative Importance of Growth Teaching Mindset, Emotions, and Self‐Efficacy in Teachers’ Grit

AbstractConsidering the demanding and challenging nature of the teaching profession in general and foreign/second language (L2) teaching contexts in particular, there is a need to examine protective psychological resources such as grit—conceptualized as the inclination to show consistent interest and perseverance in times of setbacks and failures—among L2 teachers. Given the recently emerging status of the L2 research on grit and the multitude of factors that might potentially affect teachers’ grit, this study examined the roles of growth teaching mindset, positive and negative emotions (enjoyment, anxiety, and anger), and self‐efficacy in L2 teachers’ grit. The participants were 215 Iranian teachers who were recruited via convenience sampling and responded to four questionnaires: Sudina et al.’s L2 Teacher Grit Scale, Frenzel et al.’s Teacher Emotions Scale, Nalipay et al.’s Growth Teaching Mindset Scale, and the short version of Tschannen‐Moran and Hoy's Teacher Self‐Efficacy Scale. The results indicated that all three factors significantly contributed to the teachers’ grit. Moreover, based on the results of relative weight analysis (RWA), the relative weights of enjoyment, followed by self‐efficacy and growth teaching mindset, were significantly higher in predicting teachers’ grit while anxiety and anger had the lowest relative weight. Implications for promoting teachers’ enjoyment, self‐efficacy, and growth teaching mindset as well as suggestions for future studies are presented.

Immersive Virtual Reality: A Novel Approach to Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition in K-12 Education.

Today, immersive virtual reality (IVR) is increasing in popularity in a broad range of fields, including science, pedagogy, engineering and so forth. Therefore, this study discusses the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), which can be used to examine the factors that influence the adoption of immersive VR in the classroom, particularly in second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. The sample for this study included 32 intermediate students and their teacher. For the purpose of evaluation, the researcher used partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) techniques to analyze the results. The findings of the students' survey showed that performance expectancy, effort expectancy and social influence were seen to have had a positive impact on the intention to use immersive VR. Likewise, the findings indicated that facilitating conditions were seen to have had a positive impact on the use behavior of actually using immersive VR, whereas behavioral intentions did not. In addition, the teacher's survey demonstrated a favorable view regarding the potential of immersive VR technology to support teaching L2 vocabulary acquisition. This particular study encouraged educators and educational technologists to utilize immersive VR games as a teaching-learning tool to reduce the challenge of L2 vocabulary acquisition.

Teacher support in AI-assisted exams: an experimental study to inspect the effects on demotivation, anxiety management in exams, L2 learning experience, and academic success

Although AI technologies show great promise for education, their inclusion into assessment systems has generated debates regarding student motivation, anxiety, learning opportunities, and academic results. This study explored the influence of teacher support in AI-assisted exams on L2 learners’ demotivation, anxiety, L2 learning experience, and academic success. Conducted at a large university in Ethiopia, participants included 92 BA Management students from two intact classes, equally distributed by gender and ranging in age from 18 to 23. The two intact classes were randomly divided into an experimental and a control group. Using a quantitative quasi-experimental pretest–posttest control group design, the study administered an Oxford Quick Placement Test, the Academic Motivation Scale, the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale, the L2 Learning Experience Scale, and a researcher-made test to assess academic success. The AI tools integrated into the exams included automated assessment and feedback systems to enhance learner engagement. Chi-square analyses and independent samples t-tests revealed significant positive effects of teacher support on reducing demotivation and anxiety, enhancing L2 learning experiences, and improving academic success in the experimental group compared to the control group, highlighting the benefits of combining AI tools with teacher support. These findings suggest that teacher support in AI-assisted exams can substantially benefit L2 learners. Additionally, the findings indicate that AI-assisted exams can considerably improve learning outcomes when paired with effective teacher involvement, highlighting implications for various stakeholders in L2 instruction. Implications of the study, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

A bibliometric analysis of artificial intelligence in L2 teaching and applied linguistics between 1995 and 2022 – ADDENDUM

A bibliometric analysis of artificial intelligence in L2 teaching and applied linguistics between 1995 and 2022 – ADDENDUM

Teaching Pronunciation in EFL Classes: An Investigative Study Among Kurdish EFL Teachers

Although studies have suggested that pronunciation is key to learning oral skills in a second language, not much research has been conducted to investigate teachers’ cognition in this regard. However, pronunciation significantly affects learners’ communicative competence and performance. Learners of English as foreign language (EFL) or English as a second language (ESL) often indicate that pronunciation is crucial while learning L2. Research results have demonstrated that teaching pronunciation in EFL/ESL classes is often overlooked (Baker & Murphy, 2011; Gilbert, 2008). Therefore, this study explores fifty-seven EFL university teachers’ views and cognition (knowledge, beliefs, thoughts, attitudes, and perceptions) towards teaching pronunciation at different universities in Iraqi Kurdistan and its values in L2 teaching and learning. The participants completed an online survey on teaching and learning pronunciation. The findings suggested that the instructors had positive perceptions of teaching pronunciation, but they also stated that pronunciation was challenging to teach and sometimes boring. This paper provides insights into teacher education, cognition, pronunciation skills, and there are several pedagogical implications.

Integrating Embodied Insights into Second Language Learning: Emerging Trends and Future Directions

This study explores the relationship between second language learning and embodied cognition theory, highlighting the vital role that physical and sensory engagement plays in language learning. We discuss the practical consequences of embodied cognition for L2 teaching and learning, as well as its theoretical foundations. The review compares and contrasts L1 and L2 learning, looking at the advantages of embodied techniques for L2 learners. We also investigate how learning experiences affect L2 embodied cognition, proposing that technology-enhanced, multimodal, social interaction-based approaches can greatly improve L2 learning outcomes. To construct immersive L2 learning settings that mimic real-world language use, the study concludes by noting present limits and suggesting future research options, including the possibilities of virtual and augmented reality as well as the Metaverse.

Peer editing and writing proficiency: an experimental study in South Korean higher education

ABSTRACT Peer editing enhances critical thinking, improves student writing, ultimately leading to a more productive learning environment (Kostopoulou and O’Dwyer 2021; Lundstrom and Baker 2009, “To give is better than to receive: The benefits of peer review to the reviewer’s own writing.” Journal of Second Language Writing 18:30–43; Storch 2018, “Written corrective feedback from sociocultural theoretical perspectives: A research agenda.” Language Teaching 51 (02): 262–277; Yao et al. 2021, “How university EFL writers’ beliefs in writing ability impact their perceptions of peer assessment: Perspectives from implicit theories of intelligence.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 46 (1): 151–167). However, reservations toward peer feedback in a university EFL setting persist due to the accuracy of L2 feedback (Braine, 2003; Erdel 2023, “Student feedback literacy (SFL) profiles in an L2 writing classroom and the influence of peer feedback on the SFL features.” International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies 11 (3): 112–125.). This study utilized a pretest-posttest writing assessment to analyze differences in writing outcomes in an academic research writing course at two universities in Seoul, South Korea. The researchers also examined the accuracy of the L2 peer-editing feedback. The sampling consisted of five randomized classes of university undergraduates. Two control groups received feedback via the instructor and two experimental groups received peer-editing feedback. A fifth mixed group was divided between the control and experimental groups but within the same context. The instructors used both in-class and online feedback tools for the control and experimental groups. The analysis used Sengupta’s (1998, “Peer evaluation: ‘I am not the teacher’.” ELT Journal 52 (1): 19–28) revision taxonomy to assess peer feedback accuracy. Participants completed separate pretest and posttest writing assessments. One at the start of the semester (pretest) and one at the end (posttest). The researchers used a MANOVA to compare the pretest and posttest mean average assessment scores between the control and experimental groups. The results show that peer feedback matches the effectiveness of professor feedback for pretest/posttest scores. Researchers also assessed 156 peer-editing assignments for feedback accuracy. Peer editors demonstrated statistically significant accuracy. This study recommends using peer feedback for its benefits to L2 learners and instructors.