L2 Lexicon Research Articles

Semantic Network Development in L2 Spanish and Its Impact on Processing Skills: A Multisession Eye-Tracking Study

The goal of this project was to explore how different types of vocabulary exposure shape the connections formed in the L2 lexicon and how these, in turn, affect L2 language processing. During L2 acquisition, words are often presented in thematic lists (e.g., food), favoring a lexicon organized by shared features (burger-hot dog). However, thematic lists offer only a partial picture of how words interconnect. For example, beer and football do not share any features and do not belong strictly to the same theme (food and sports, respectively); still, they co-occur frequently and are associated in the lexicon. A multisession training study and visual world eye-tracking tests were conducted to assess how different types of vocabulary exposure impact L2 processing. Intermediate L2 Spanish learners were trained under one of two conditions, thematic lists (TL, as in textbooks) or words presented in visual scenes (VS) with vocabulary related by co-occurrence. The VS group showed significant changes in their gaze patterns, resembling the naturalistic exposure baseline group (native speakers), more than the TL group. The results are interpreted in light of the anticipatory processing literature and the strength of representations as a result of naturalistic vs. formal exposure to L2 vocabulary.

Pausing behavior of late bilingual and monolingual English speakers

This study examined the differences in the pausing behavior between native and non-native English speakers. Specifically, it examined the location and duration of pauses in relation to the syntactic and lexical complexity of the clauses in which these pauses occur and the nature of the prosodic phrasing of the utterances containing pauses. Speech samples from 10 native (L1) English and 10 Mandarin non-native English speakers from the Archive of L1 and L2 Scripted and Spontaneous Transcripts and Recordings (ALLSSTAR) were included in the analysis. The results showed that lower-level prosodic boundaries and syntactically complex phrases were associated with significantly longer pause duration in the L2 speech. Additionally, phrases with less frequent words tended to induce longer pauses. These findings suggest that insufficient knowledge of the L2 syntax, lexicon, and prosody might determine the location and duration of pauses and ultimately affect the speech fluency of L2 speakers.

Native and foreign language orthotactic probability and neighborhood density in word learning

Abstract Laboratory studies on word learning in a foreign language (L2) have identified several variables involved in the learning process, key amongst them the orthotactic probability and neighborhood density of new words relative to learners’ native (L1) lexicons. More recently, learners’ sensitivity to orthotactic probability and neighborhood density relative to their developing L2 lexicons has come into focus. Past studies on word learning have largely focused on early stages of learning, in controlled studies spanning hours or days. Few studies have considered large corpora of ‘real-life’ learning data, spanning several weeks. In this study, we validate past findings outside of controlled laboratory conditions, by analyzing a dataset collected from Duolingo (Settles et al., 2018), a popular language learning app. Effects of orthotactic probability and neighborhood density observed in controlled studies persist under uncontrolled, big-data conditions for learners of Spanish, but not French. As learning progresses, we observe a previously unreported reversal of the effects of L1 orthotactic probability and neighborhood density, challenging theoretical models of word learning. Finally, we confirm the importance of orthotactic probability and neighborhood density relative to learners’ developing L2 Spanish lexicons, lending support to theories which posit that the same processes underly both L1 and L2 acquisition.

Feature Acquisition: Object Drop in L2 Spanish

Abstract This paper investigates the L2 acquisition of Spanish object drop by advanced learners whose L1s are English and Brazilian Portuguese, in order to assess effects on their knowledge of the interpretable and uninterpretable features conditioning the realization of object drop in their L2 Spanish. Object drop in Spanish is subject to semantic restrictions related to definiteness and specificity, as well as syntactic restrictions related to subjacency. Current debates about second language acquisition (SLA) have led to different hypotheses. On the one hand, the Interpretability Hypothesis/IH (Hawkins, Roger & Hajime Hattori. 2006. Interpretation of English multiple wh-questions by Japanese speakers: A missing uninterpretable feature account. Second Language Research 22. 269–301) claims that uninterpretable features will not be completely acquired. On the other hand, the Feature Reassembly Hypothesis/FRH (Hwang, Sun Hee & Donna Lardiere. 2013. Plural-marking in L2 Korean: A feature-based approach. Second Language Research 29. 57–86; Lardiere, Donna. 2009. Some thoughts on the contrastive analysis of features in second language acquisition. Second Language Research 25. 173–227) does not distinguish between interpretable and uninterpretable features for the purposes of SLA, arguing that the difficulty of the acquisition task hinges on the required amount of feature reassembly from the L1 to the L2 lexicon. Finally, the Full Transfer/Full Access (FT/FA) (Schwartz, Bonnie & Rex Sprouse. 1996. L2 cognitive states and the Full Transfer/Full Access model. Second Language Research 12. 40–72; Schwartz, Bonnie & Rex Sprouse. 2000. When syntactic theories evolve: Consequences for L2 acquisition research. In John Archibald (ed.), Second language acquisition and linguistic theory, 156–186. Malden, MA: Blackwell; White, Lydia. 2003. Second language acquisition and universal grammar. New York: Cambridge University Press) hypothesis treats SLA as equivalent to first-language acquisition, in terms of the potential for ultimate attainment. Both the FT/FA and the FRH are in principle compatible with full attainment in L2 acquisition. To assess these hypotheses, this study tests the L2 acquisition of the semantic and syntactic restrictions on Spanish object drop by learners whose L1 either lacks widespread object drop (English), or has regular object drop but realizes it differently from Spanish (Brazilian Portuguese). The Full Transfer/Full Access hypothesis seems to best explain the results of the two experiments.

The Effects of L1 Transfers on L2 English Intransitive Errors by Japanese Learners

Second language (L2) learners of various native languages frequently overpassivize one type of intransitive verbs, namely, unaccusatives (e.g., disappeared, arrivedn). Previous studies have attempted to address the culprit of this issue without reaching a general consensus on the cause of such errors. This study investigates whether first language (L1) plays a role in L2 English overpassivization errors with intransitive verbs by Japanese-speaking learners. It utilizes the framework of the Unaccusative Trap Hypothesis (UTH, Oshita, 2001) and hypothesizes that learners ungrammatically passivize unaccusative verbs due to L1 lexicon and morphology. It also predicts that learners generate passive errors with unergatives (e.g., cry, smile) in the same manner as passive unaccusatives. The study examined three types of intransitives: English non-alternating/Japanese alternating unaccusatives (e.g., happen in English and okiru/okosu in Japanese); English/Japanese non-alternating unaccusatives (e.g., arrive in English and tuku in Japanese); unergatives. The study analyzed a Japanese learners’ corpus (JEFLL Corpus), consisting of approximately 70,000 words from Japanese junior high and high school students. The findings in this study are that Japanese EFL learners tend to passivize more English non-alternating/Japanese alternating unaccusatives and unergatives than English/Japanese non-alternating unaccusatives. Given the result, it can be suggested that Japanese learners passivize unaccusatives owing to the influence of their L1 lexicon and morphology.

Noncombinatorial grammar: A challenge for memory research on second language acquisition and bilingualism

Research on second language acquisition has greatly benefitted from the declarative procedural model (DPM). The DPM proposes that declarative and procedural memory support – respectively – the acquisition of the L2 lexicon and L2 grammar. However, over the years, the meaning of ‘grammar’ and ‘lexicon’ within the DPM has changed, perhaps as a result of the changes occurred in linguistic theory. In particular, a number of studies coupled the combinatorial rules of grammar supported by procedural memory with patterns of usage and probabilistic rules. Such specification apparently excluded ‘noncombinatorial grammar’, which is the grammar computed over frequency-independent features. This paper first discusses the evolution of ‘grammar’ and ‘lexicon’ within the DPM, then describes a number of noncombinatorial phenomena that have been overlooked in memory studies on bilingualism. The aim is to encourage future research on whether and how especially procedural memory can also support the acquisition of noncombinatorial grammar. • Memory research paired procedural memory with grammatical processing and declarative memory with lexical processing. • Procedural memory was gradually paired with the statistical learning of regularities. • Noncombinatorial grammar is totally underrepresented in memory research on bilingualism.

Same vowels but different contrasts: Mandarin listeners’ perception of English /ei/-/iː/ in unfamiliar phonotactic contexts

The study presented here examines how adult L2 listeners’ L1 phonotactics interferes with L2 vowel perception in different consonantal contexts. We examined Mandarin listeners’ perception of the English /ei/-/iː/ vowel contrast in three onset consonantal contexts, /p f w/, which represent different phonotactic scenarios with respect to the permissibility of Mandarin phonology. L1 Mandarin listeners (N = 42) completed a series of three tasks: a categorisation task, a vowel identification task, and an AXB discrimination task. The results show that English /ei/-/iː/ are perceived as highly contrastive in the /p/ context because both /pei/ and /piː/ constitute a licit sequence in Mandarin phonology. However, participants experience substantial /ei/-/iː/ category confusion in the /f/ and /w/ contexts, where Mandarin listeners repair perceptually by modifying the vowel quality in illicit (unattested) consonant–vowel sequences, i.e., */fiː/ → /fei/ and */wiː/ → /wei/. Further exploratory analyses indicate that L2 listeners’ vowel perception in unfamiliar phonotactic contexts is associated with their target language experience, typically indicated by their L2 vocabulary size. The findings thus suggest that the acquisition of novel phonotactic regularities is tied to increased experience with the L2 lexicon.

On the lexical source of variable L2 phoneme production

Abstract The current study investigates two lexical explanations for variation in L2 production: approximate (‘fuzzy’) representations vs dual URs. The focus is on Quebec francophone (QF) production of English /θ ð/ and /h/, which a reading-aloud task shows to be highly variable. Variation is problematic for the assumption that, due to perceptual illusions, URs are inaccurate. How is accurate output generated from inaccurate URs? Approximate representations employ diacritics rather than distinctive features. Arguably, these representations do not consistently generate accurate output. Under dual URs, lexical entries contain both inaccurate URs due to initial misperceptions and accurate URs generated when learners become capable of perceiving L2 phonemes. These URs compete for selection, leading to variation. Perception findings from oddball and semantic incongruity tasks provide conflicting support for the explanations: perception is variable, as predicted under approximate representations; but typical L2→L1 substitutions are harder to detect than atypical L1→L2 substitutions, an asymmetry expected under dual URs. To resolve the contradiction, we reinterpret the latter findings as revealing an implicit strategy of corrective adjustment acquired through experience with L2 errors. While we conclude that the L2 lexicon employs approximate representations, an enduring enigma concerns the considerably higher rates of hypercorrect [h] than [θ ð].

A Study on the Role of Mental Lexicon in Teaching Movie English

The purpose of this study is twofold: firstly, to investigate whether memorization is improved if the L1 mental lexicon (in this case, Korean) is dependent on the L2 mental lexicon (English), or vice versa; secondly, to observe whether L1 and L2 lexicons stay in the same state or whether they remain in different modular conditions. To do this, a case study was undertaken with four college students. Two participants (A and B) had a beginner level of English and two (C and D) had an intermediate level of English. Two movies were used for this study. A similar procedure was performed on both levels. Recall tests of 50 items were administered to both levels. The results showed that participants A, B, and C were successful in memorization and recall, but participant D was unsuccessful. The suggested reason is that A, B, and C depended on the L1 lexicon whereas D depended on the L2 lexicon. It turns out that the primary use of L1 lexicon was effective for memorization. For the second question, it is proposed that less proficient students have a close integration of L1 and L2 lexicons, and that more proficient students have more separation of L1 and L2 lexicons.

Morphological Priming Effects in L2 English Verbs for Japanese-English Bilinguals.

For native (L1) English readers, masked presentations of past-tense verb primes (e.g., fell and looked) produce faster lexical decision latencies to their present-tense targets (e.g., FALL and LOOK) than orthographically related (e.g., fill and loose) or unrelated (e.g., master and bank) primes. This facilitation observed with morphologically related prime-target pairs (morphological priming) is generally taken as evidence for strong connections based on morphological relationships in the L1 lexicon. It is unclear, however, if similar, morphologically based, connections develop in non-native (L2) lexicons. Several earlier studies with L2 English readers have reported mixed results. The present experiments examine whether past-tense verb primes (both regular and irregular verbs) significantly facilitate target lexical decisions for Japanese-English bilinguals beyond any facilitation provided by prime-target orthographic similarity. Overall, past-tense verb primes facilitated lexical decisions to their present-tense targets relative to both orthographically related and unrelated primes. Replicating previous masked priming experiments with L2 readers, orthographically related primes also facilitated target recognition relative to unrelated primes, confirming that orthographic similarity facilitates L2 target recognition. The additional facilitation from past-tense verb primes beyond that provided by orthographic primes suggests that, in the L2 English lexicon, connections based on morphological relationships develop in a way that is similar to how they develop in the L1 English lexicon even though the connections and processing of lower level, lexical/orthographic information may differ. Further analyses involving L2 proficiency revealed that as L2 proficiency increased, orthographic facilitation was reduced, indicating that there is a decrease in the fuzziness in orthographic representations in the L2 lexicon with increased proficiency.

Masked Morphological Priming and Sensitivity to the Statistical Structure of Form-to-Meaning Mapping in L2.

In one’s native language, visual word identification is based on early morphological analysis and is sensitive to the statistical structure of the mapping between form and meaning (Orthography–to–Semantic Consistency, OSC). How these mechanisms apply to a second language is much less clear. We recruited L1 Italian–L2 English speakers for a masked priming task where the relationship between prime and target was morphologically transparent, e.g., employer–EMPLOY, morphologically opaque, e.g., corner-CORN, or merely orthographic, e.g., brothel–BROTH. Critically, participants underwent thorough testing of their lexical, morphological, phonological, spelling, and semantic proficiency in their second language. By exploring a wide spectrum of L2 proficiency, we showed that this factor critically qualifies L2 priming. Genuine morphological facilitation only arises as proficiency grows, while orthographic priming shrinks as L2 competence increases. OSC was also found to modulate priming and interact with proficiency, providing an alternative way of describing the transparency continuum in derivational morphology. Overall, these data illustrate the trajectory towards a fully consolidated L2 lexicon and show that masked priming and sensitivity to OSC are key trackers of this process.

Cross-linguistic gender congruency effects during lexical access in novice L2 learners: evidence from ERPs

ABSTRACT Herein we present electrophysiological evidence of extremely rapid learning of new labels in a second language (L2) for existing concepts, via computerized games. However, the effect was largely constrained by crosslinguistic grammatical gender congruency. We recorded ERPs both prior to exposure with the L2 and following a 4-day training session. Prior to exposure, no modulation of the N400 component was found as a function of the correct Match vs. Mismatch of audio presentation of words and their associated images. Post-training, a large N400 effect emerged for Mismatch compared to Match trials, but only for trials on which the L2 words shared grammatical gender in the learners' L1. Behavioral results showed that all L2 words were learned equally as well, independent of gender congruency across the L1 and the L2. The results demonstrate that crosslinguistic grammatical gender congruency influences lexical activation during the initial stages of establishing a new L2 lexicon.

Orthographic Priming in Second‐Language Visual Word Recognition

Several previous studies showed that prime-target pairs with orthographical overlap but no semantic or morphological relationship (e.g., freeze-free) produced a masked priming effect in second language (L2) speakers but not in first language (L1) speakers. The present study further explored this intriguing L1–L2 difference by comparing English native speakers and nonnative speakers in the masked priming paradigm in combination with a lexical decision task. The stimuli included prime-target pairs with orthographical overlap at both the word-initial and word-final positions (e.g., rubber-rub, stage-age) but without any semantic or morphological relationship. The results replicated orthographic priming in L2 speakers for words with both overlap positions. Two accounts of this L1–L2 difference are discussed, one focusing on the representational aspect and the other on the processing characteristics of the L2 lexicon.

Fuzzy or Clear? A Computational Approach Towards Dynamic L2 Lexical-Semantic Representation

In this paper, we present a computational approach to bilingual speakers’ non-native (L2) lexical-semantic representations. Specifically, based on detailed analyses of the error patterns shown in our previous simulation results (Zhao and Li Int. J. Bilingual. Educ. Bilingual., 2010, 13, 505–524;Zhao and Li, Bilingualism, 2013, 16, 288–303), we aim at revealing the underlying learning factors that may affect the extent of fuzzy category boundaries within bilinguals’ L2 representation. Here, we first review computational bilingual models in the literature that have focused on simulating L2 lexical representations, including the Developmental Lexicon II (DevLex-II) model (Zhao and Li, Int. J. Bilingual. Educ. Bilingual., 2010, 13, 505–524;Zhao and Li, Bilingualism, 2013, 16, 288–303), on which the current study is based. The DevLex-II modeling results indicate a strong age of acquisition (AoA) effect: When the learning of L2 is early relative to that of native language (L1), functionally distinct lexical representations may be established for both languages; when the learning of L2 is significantly delayed relative to that of L1, fuzzy L2 representations may occur due to the structural consolidation (or theentrenchment) of the L1 lexicon. Next, we explore the error patterns shown in both lexical comprehension and production in DevLex-II. A novel contribution of the current study is that we systematically compare the computational simulation results with empirical findings. Such model-based error analyses extend our previous findings by indicating, especially in the late L2 learning condition, that fuzzy L2 semantic representations emerge and lead to processing errors, including errors in unstable phonology-semantic and semantic-phonemic mappings. The DevLex-II model provides a computational account of the development of bilinguals’ L2 representation with reference to the dynamic interaction and competition between the two lexicons. We point to future directions in which fuzzy L2 representations may be overcome, through a framework that highlights the social learning of L2 (SL2) and the embodied semantic representation of the lexicon in the new language (Li and Jeong, Npj Sci. Learn., 2020, 5, 1–9;Zhang, Yang, Wang and Li, Lang. Cogn. Neurosci., 2020, 35, 1223–1238).

Cognitive Advantages of Multilingual Learning on Metalinguistic Awareness, Working Memory and L1 Lexicon Size: Reconceptualization of Linguistic Giftedness from a DMM Perspective.

The relation between multilingual learning and cognition through (linguistic) giftedness has not been studied yet in third language acquisition, multilingualism or cognition studies. Even though ‘giftedness’ appears to be enigmatic and advantageous in a number of areas, in the field of language learning it is not clear whether multilingual learning or giftedness fulfils the triggering role in a number of cognitive skills. For that purpose, the present study observed the possible cognitive advantages of multilingual learning on metalinguistic awareness (Jessner 2006), working memory (Baddeley & Hitch 1974; Robinson 2002; 2012) and first language lexicon size of a number of children from regular and gifted education programmes in a Dynamic Model of Multilingualism perspective (Herdina & Jessner 2002). The study was analyzed with the multiple linear regression model based on the scores gathered from the data of working memory and vocabulary sub-tests of the Turkish adaptation version (Savaşır & Şahin 1995) of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised, and metalinguistic awareness test (Pinto et al. 1999) of a number of mono-, bi- and multilingual participants from various schools. The results not only provided positive correlations between multilingual learning and metalinguistic awareness, working memory and first language lexicon size but also contributed to the identification and reconceptualization of linguistic giftedness.

Lexical Retrieval Difficulties in the L1 of Lithuanians in Ireland

The article describes the study of the Irish Lithuanian (IL) L1 lexical attrition. Several indications can show lexical attrition: vocabulary reduction, use of hypernyms instead of hyponyms, code switching, and hesitation markers. These signs indicate that the person is having difficulty retrieving words from memory. The article analyzes 30 IL speech examples (recordings of picture description) while focusing on the hesitation markers (pauses, corrections, repetitions, etc.) and the units of lexical expression. The study involves first-generation emigrants who left Lithuania at the age of 12 or older and have lived in Ireland for 5 years or more. The data of the target group are compared with the data of the control group – Lithuanians living in Lithuania (LL). The significance of the results is confirmed by applying T test.
 During the study, informants were asked to describe two pictures. The results show that there were more hesitation markers in IL speech rather than in LL speech (p = 0.000). In addition, less relevant units of lexical expression were used in IL rather than in LL speech (p = 0.002). Such results suggest that the target group experience difficulties retrieving words from memory and this could mean that their L1 lexicon is facing attrition. It also turned out that the picture related to private life situations was described more fluently than the picture related to public life situations.

영어 L2 학습자의 어휘부 활성화: 평행성을 중심으로

It is well established that multiple words with phonetic similarities are activated in the monolingual processing of spoken words. Yet relatively less is known about cross-language activation of phonetically similar words in the bilingual minds. The present study explored cross-language activation of mental lexicon in the spoken word processing of Korean learners of English (i.e., Korean L1-English L2 group). The data from Korean learners of English group were compared with those from native speakers of English (i.e.,English L1 only group). In the experimental task, they were asked to listen to spoken words in English while looking at a display with a target picture, a competitor picture whose Korean translation was phonetically overlapped with the target object, and two pictures of unrelated distractors. Their eye movements were analyzed. The Korean L1-English L2 group looked more often at the pictures of cross-language competitor than English L1 only group did. This finding strongly suggests the presence of non-selective access to both lexicons among the Korean learners of English during the spoken word processing in English. Namely, both L1 and L2 lexicons are spontaneously activated even when they were asked to process the spoken words in L2.(Kyung Hee University)

Fuzzy Lexical Representations in Adult Second Language Speakers.

We propose the fuzzy lexical representations (FLRs) hypothesis that regards fuzziness as a core property of nonnative (L2) lexical representations (LRs). Fuzziness refers to imprecise encoding at different levels of LRs and interacts with input frequency during lexical processing and learning in adult L2 speakers. The FLR hypothesis primarily focuses on the encoding of spoken L2 words. We discuss the causes of fuzzy encoding of phonological form and meaning as well as fuzzy form-meaning mappings and the consequences of fuzzy encoding for word storage and retrieval. A central factor contributing to the fuzziness of L2 LRs is the fact that the L2 lexicon is acquired when the L1 lexicon is already in place. There are two immediate consequences of such sequential learning. First, L2 phonological categorization difficulties lead to fuzzy phonological form encoding. Second, the acquisition of L2 word forms subsequently to their meanings, which had already been acquired together with the L1 word forms, leads to weak L2 form-meaning mappings. The FLR hypothesis accounts for a range of phenomena observed in L2 lexical processing, including lexical confusions, slow lexical access, retrieval of incorrect lexical entries, weak lexical competition, reliance on sublexical rather than lexical heuristics in word recognition, the precedence of word form over meaning, and the prominence of detailed, even if imprecisely encoded, information about LRs in episodic memory. The main claim of the FLR hypothesis – that the quality of lexical encoding is a product of a complex interplay between fuzziness and input frequency – can contribute to increasing the efficiency of the existing models of LRs and lexical access.

The status of conventional metaphorical meaning in the L2 lexicon

AbstractThis paper investigates how L2 speakers of English process conventional metaphorical expressions. While much of the literature on L2 processing of figurative expressions focuses on idioms only, the aim of this paper is to investigate how L2 speakers process conventional metaphorical expressions. The results of a cross-modal semantic priming task show that conventional metaphors have a special status in comparison to literal language in the L2 lexicon. The differences in reaction times show that L2 speakers are aware of the connections between literal primes and targets, resulting in slower reaction times, while this effect is not found in the metaphorical condition. This demonstrates that even when metaphorical language is very conventional, it can cause difficulties for L2 speakers. Furthermore, these results show that conventional metaphorical expressions can pose a semantic and pragmatic challenge for language learners, thus creating a need for explicit teaching of metaphorical meanings of polysemous words.

Ontogenesis Model of the L2 Lexical Representation

AbstractWe introduce the blueprint of the Ontogenesis Model of the L2 Lexical Representation (OM) that focuses on the development of lexical representations. The OM has three dimensions: linguistic domains (phonological, orthographic, and semantic), mappings between domains, and networks of lexical representations. The model assumes that fuzziness is a pervasive property of the L2 lexicon: most L2 lexical representations are low resolution and the ontogenetic curve of their development does not reach the optimum (i.e., the ultimate stage of their attainment with optimal encoding) in one or more dimensions. We review the findings on lexical processing and vocabulary training to show that the OM has a potential to provide an interpretation for the results that have been treated separately and to move us forward in building a comprehensive model of L2 lexical acquisition and processing.