Kumaun Himalayas Research Articles

Unravelling the Role of Socio-Physical Drivers for Potential Built-up Site Selection in the Kumaun Himalayas Using GIS-Based Fuzzy-AHP and Machine Learning

Rapid and uncontrolled urban growth in the Kumaun Himalayas in absence of proper land use policy has pushed built-up areas towards the tectonically and ecologically sensitive regions, reducing the availability of suitable built-up land while simultaneously increasing the vulnerability of both communities and environment. The identification of areas for sustainable built-up growth is of paramount importance to address the challenges arising from unregulated urban expansion. In this study GIS-based Fuzzy-AHP technique and machine learning algorithms (SVM and BN) were employed to delineate the potential built-up sites selection in Hawalbagh Block, Uttarakhand (India) using nine socio-physical drivers, including slope, aspect, LU/LC, distance to road, distance to drainage, distance to lineament, distance to landslide, distance to settlement, and lithology. The suitability maps generated by the three methods were validated using AU-ROC analysis, which demonstrated that each approach produces outstanding results with AU-ROC values more than 0.90. The comparison of the approaches shows that SVM (AUROC=0.99) outperforms BN (0.95) and GIS-based Fuzzy-AHP (0.90). The suitability maps were classified into five suitability classes. Assuming that very high and high suitability classes are acceptable for built-up expansion, the study identified potential built-up locations in the study region covering an area of 148.86 km2, 85.23 km2, and 55.25 km2 according to the Fuzzy-AHP technique, SVM model, and BN model, respectively. The suitability zonation in this study can serve as a foundation for the development of land-use policy or the formulation of master plans aimed at achieving a sustainable mountain ecology in the Kumaun Himalayas.

Phytochemical analysis, post-harvest shade drying, and biological activities of Melaleuca linariifolia Sm. from foothills of Kumaun Himalayas, India

Melaleuca linariifolia Sm. (Genus: Melaleuca; Family: Myrtaceae) cultivated for its ornamental usages in the Kumaun Himalayan region of Uttarakhand is commercially known as flax-leaved paper bark tree. The present study analyzes the chemical variation of the essential oils obtained from aerial parts and flowers of M. linariifolia. The effect of post-harvest shade drying on the essential oil composition was also assessed in the study. Total of 16 compounds accounting for 94.2 % and 94.6 % were identified in the aerial parts and flowers essential oil, respectively. 1,8-Cineole (71.8 %–73.8 %) was identified as the predominant compound in both the studied essential oils followed by limonene (1.7 %–9.3 %) and α-terpineol (4.2 %–6.7 %). Moreover, the fresh aerial parts had 73.8% of 1,8-cineole content which increased up to 79.2% post-harvest drying. The study revealed oxygenated monoterpenes as the major class constituents with 1,8-cineole as the marker component ranging from 67.7 % to 79.2 % during the post drying analysis. While assessing the biological activities, the antioxidant activity of the oils was investigated in vitro using three assays: DPPH radical scavenging activity, Iron(II) complexing activity, and H2O2 radical scavenging activity. The oil also inhibited the activity of α-amylase with IC50 of 3.26 ± 0.04 μg/ml and protein denaturation with IC50 of 3.0 ± 0.03 g/ml. This is the first-time report of essential oil analysis of M. linariifolia flowers and post-harvest drying study from bhabar region of the Kumaun Himalayas. The high essential oil yield, rich chemical composition and biological activities suggest the cultivation of Melaleuca species as an industrial crop.

Bioactive compound, polyphenol content, and antioxidant activity of Asparagus racemosus Linn. root extract

Asparagus racemosus Linn. is an ethnopharmacologically important plant having extensive uses in Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha. This study was carried out to evaluate the chemical profile of A. racemosus Linn. using GC-MS and FT-IR analysis, and its polyphenol content and antioxidant effects. Plants were collected from Bhujiyaghat, Nainital (29.3159° N, 79.5245° E) in Kumaun Himalayas. GC–MS with FT-IR analysis identified multiple functional groups, including carboxylic acid derivatives. Methyl 11, 12-octadecadienoate, was screened as the major compounds by GC-MS. A. racemosus contains a high concentration of phenols (80.92 ± 0.57 mg of GAE/g of DW), flavonoids (58.22 ± 1.62 mg of QE/g of DW), and tannins (86.77 ± 0.81 mg of TAE/g of DW). DPPH (24.63 ± 0.21 g/ml) and FRAP (72.49483 ± 0.130549 mg of AAE/g of DW) assays revealed the presence of significant antioxidant activity in A. racemosus.

Himalayan magnesite records abrupt cyanobacterial growth that plausibly triggered the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event

The widespread glaciation (∼750–580 Ma) of the late Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth and the subsequent (∼630–551 Ma) oxygenation of the oceans and atmosphere were critical factors in microbial evolution and the following ∼540–520 Ma explosion of complex life forms in the Cambrian. However, the underlying mechanisms that link these processes are still unclear due to poorly preserved fossil records and the tectonic destruction of the paleo-oceans, limiting our understanding of the Neoproterozoic Earth, a key time when unicellular life evolved into complex forms. Droplets of Neoproterozoic oceanwater and freshwater trapped in Himalayan crystalline magnesite (MgCO3) show that sedimentary basins were deprived of calcium for an extended period during the Snowball Earth glaciation, probably due to low riverine input of the dissolved products of weathering. Protracted precipitation of calcite-dolomite in a closed basin, now exposed in Kumaun Himalayas, Uttarakhand (India), decreased the Ca/Mg ratio in the seawater. This fall in the Ca/Mg ratio—initiated magnesite precipitation and increased the basin's oligotrophy (nutrition deficiency). The slow-growing photosynthetic cyanobacterial stromatolites could thrive in such oligotrophic conditions. The same is reflected in the field, i.e., the appearance of stromatolites towards the end of dolomite formation and their population expansion in the overlying magnesite beds. Continued magnesite precipitation in a closed basin, driven by positive feedback, resulted in high photosynthetic oxygen production, conceivably triggering the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event and stimulating Cambrian Explosion.

AN ASSESSMENT OF CHANGES IN EXTENT OF GLACIERS IN KUMAUN HIMALAYAS

Recent decades have witnessed significant impacts from climate change. Due to climate change glacier are retreating, shrinking, and disappearing worldwide. Studying glaciers from a wide range of remote sensing platforms and techniques has become an expanding field over the past decade. This study presents an assessment of changes in extent of glaciers in kumaun Himalayas. In this study, Remote sensed satellite based datasets have been used for extent of glacier. Landsat 5 TM, landsat 7 ETM+ and landsat 8 OLI/TIRS were taken and studies for three time periods, 1997, 2008 and 2017. The visual interpretation methods were applied to identify the glacier & their extent using multitemporal data. Cartosat version -3 DEM was used to identify the topography of the study area. The result depicts that Glacier area in the current study of the kumaun Himalaya for the year 1997, 2008, and 2017 are 435.15km2 , 290.7km2 , and 239.85km2.The glaciers over the years are showing a decline in their area. In this study a challenge has been made to quantitatively define the glacier extent and their rate of decrease.

Intraplate seismicity and earthquake hazard in the Aravalli–Delhi Fold Belt, India

The Aravalli–Delhi Fold Belt (ADFB) is one of three prominent ridges on the continental part of the Indian plate extending northward from central India and subducting beneath the Himalayan arc. Though it is seismogenic along its entire NE–SW structural trend, activity varies spatially with a noteworthy region of higher seismicity in the vicinity of Delhi. We analyse historical and modern instrumented seismicity. Using recomputed focal mechanisms for events such as the 1956 Bulandshahr earthquake, we found that the maximum principal stress (σ1) in this region is oriented in the N–S to NE–SW direction, similar to that in the neighbouring Garhwal–Kumaun Himalayas. Our analysis also indicates that the earthquakes along the ADFB occur on steep faults which are parallel or oblique to its NE–SW structural trend and that the entire crust appears to be seismically active as the earthquakes occur up to a depth of ~40 km. Within the better instrumented Delhi region, we observed a pattern in the average monthly frequency of earthquakes recorded that we speculate was modulated by monsoonal recharge of the local water table. The cause of seismicity in the AFDB is still a question for debate, pending better seismological and geodetic instrumentation, but we build on evolutionary models of the ADFB to suggest that seismicity is the consequence of the continued relative motion between the Bundelkhand and Marwar cratons in the northern Indian shield. The nature and causes of earthquakes in this region notwithstanding, the proximity of large cities such as Delhi, Jaipur and Udaipur to poorly-studied or unknown sources of seismic hazard is a concern and warrants further scientific and policy intervention.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12040-022-01957-3.

Assessment of Biomass Storage, Net Accumulation and Carbon Sequestration in Chir-Pine (<i>Pinus roxburghii</i> Sarg.) Dominated Community Forests of Kumaun Himalaya in relation to Climate Change

The present study deals with the vegetation analysis, biomass storage and carbon sequestration at three different aspects of Van Panchayat (Community) forest sites around Nainital district of Kumaun Himalayas. All three aspects, viz; south-east (SE), east (E) and south (S) of Van Panchayat forests are dominated by Pinus roxburghii Sarg. The density of trees across all aspects of community forests varied from 450 to 670 individuals ha -1 . The basal area values reported varied from 31.16 to 56.32 m 2 ha -1 . The species diversity across aspects ranged from 0.440 to 1.389, 1.656 to 2.319 and 1.962 to 3.152 for trees, shrubs and herbs, respectively. Total biomass storage values of trees across all aspects ranged from 155.83 to 333.77 t ha-1. Net biomass accumulation by trees was 10.53 t ha -1 yr -1 on SE aspect (Chir-Pine forest), 8.05 t ha -1 yr -1 on E aspect (Chir Pine forest) and 7.96 t ha -1 yr -1 on S aspect (Chir-Pine forest). Net annual carbon sequestration of trees varied between 3.54 and 4.36 t C ha -1 yr -1 . The density, biomass storage, net annual biomass accumulation as well as carbon sequestration values reported are higher on SE aspect. It can be predicted that South-East aspect (mixed aspect) plays a significant role in forest growth and maturity as compared to East and South (singal) aspects. In general, strong rules and regulations and effective enforcement must have minimized degradation and deforestation of forests in this Van Panchyat. This will certainly help in increasing forest cover and reducing carbon emission which will lead to minimise rise in CO 2 level of the atmosphere.

DISTRIBUTION OF BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES ALONG SEDIMENT GRADIENTS IN A MOUNTAIN LAKE OF KUMAUN HIMALAYAS, INDIA

Distribution of benthic macroinvertebrates with sediment characteristics was determined in Lake Sattal of Kumaun Himalayas, India. Sampling was undertaken monthly for two consecutive years at four sites using Ekman dredge bottom sampler. A total of 31 benthic macroinvertebrates species belonging to 10 groups viz, Diptera (5), Trichoptera (5), Gastropoda (4), Ephemeroptera (3), Hirudinea (3), Odonata (3), Coleoptera (2), Decapoda (2), Oligochaeta (2), and Platyhelminthes (2) were collected. Temporal and spatial variations of sediment grain sizes, total organic matters, dissolved oxygen (DO) at the near-bottom layer (NBL) were estimated. Our study reveals that the diversity of macroinvertebrates was higher at the stable medium-sized particles and reduces in coarser-grained sediment bed. Although organic matter regulates the abundance of both sensitive insect larvae and pollution tolerant chironomids, the two groups have different habitat preferences and functional feedings. Increased detrital inputs and periodical anoxia at near bottom layer (NBL) augmented the domination of deposit-feeders. Changes in the land-use pattern in the catchment alter the habitat structures and enhance basal resources segregation in the upland lake. Therefore, determination of habitat-specificity of benthic macroinvertebrates could develop priority efforts to protect the mountain ecosystem.

Factors influencing distribution patterns of cyanobacteria in an upland lake of the Kumaun Himalayas, India

We study the dynamics of bloom-forming cyanobacteria and determined the major driving forces in subtropical lake of the Kumaun Himalayas, India. Water and plankton samples from different sites and depths of the lake were analyzed. Multivariate analyses were used to evaluate the factors controlling the distribution pattern of cyanobacteria. M. aeruginosa was the most abundant species with an average density of 10.39 × 106 individual/m3 and distributed throughout water depths. The geomorphic threshold modulates soil erosion processes resulting in lower transparency in the Himalayan lake; thereby limiting the growth of Chlorophycea. Effective persistence for M. aeroginosa into different depths is augmented by fluxes nutrient coupling with pigments. The ratio of nitrogen/phosphorus (N/P) had a significant negative correlation (F =-0.884; p = 0.0001) with densities. Expansion of M. aeruginosa in deep de-stratified lake is episodic and their proliferation can restrict by lowering phosphorus.

Antioxidative potential and compositional variation among Origanum vulgare L. collected from different districts of Kumaun Himalayas, Uttarakhand

ABSTRACTThe present study investigated the compositional variation and antioxidant potential of Origanum vulgare L. (subsp. vulgare) collected from three districts of Uttarakhand, India. The essential oil composition was analyzed by GC and GC/MS, and the antioxidant potential was evaluated using 2,2ʹ-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) activity and Fe2+-ferrozine test system for iron-chelating activity methods. The analysis allowed the identification of 22–36 compounds representing 87.84–92.95% of the total essential oil. Samples S1 and S2 contained a high amount of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (26.37–47.25%), while sample S3 was rich in oxygenated monoterpenes (70.21%). The major component was (E)-caryophyllene in S1 and S2 samples (15.40–26.41%) and thymol (60.3%) in S3 sample. The S3 sample collected from the lowest altitude showed the highest oil yield and antioxidant activity.

Indigenous Alcoholic Beverage ‘Chakti’ of High Altitude Bhotiya Community of Chaudans Valley of Kumaun Himalayas

The traditional foods and beverages are an indicative of the simplicity and uniqueness of the life of tribal people living in close proximity of nature as well as each other. One such community is the Bhotiya tribe of Uttarakhand residing in the high altitude Indian Himalayan Region, known globally for its ethnic knowledge and traditional practices. They have old age traditions of producing indigenous alcoholic beverages. The present study undertakes one such practice of preparing a traditional drink called ‘Chakti’ using a wheat-based ethnic starter culture ‘balma’ having Thymus linearis (Jungali ajwain) as the main ingredient. The traditional drink is not only a part of their household or societal ceremonies and festivals but is a source of nutrition as well as income generation and livelihood. Furthermore, there is a need of assessment and documentation of these traditional beverages in terms of quality so as to with the aim of preserving indigenous knowledge as well as utilise it accordingly.

Development of recharge and conservation site suitability model for groundwater retrieval and evaluation of artificial recharge potential in a complex hydro-geological spring-fed river basin

In view of complex hydro-geological system and continuous groundwater depletion in mountainous region, there is an urgent need for replenishment groundwater sources in order to secure their long-term sustainability. The current study was aimed to develop a model that will efficiently suggest suitable sites in spring-fed Kosi watershed of Kumaun Himalayas for recharging groundwater. Factors affecting groundwater recharge were found to play a much more complex role in mountainous regions compared to plains due to diversified geological formations, lithological and chronological variations, and complex tectonic framework. In this study, behaviour of influencing factor in complex topographical region has been quantified independently as well as interdependently for identification of cumulative impact of these hydro-geological factors in recharging groundwater. A standard methodology was further developed to identify potential recharge sites by assigning intra-layer weightage and inter-layer score by quantifying the influence of each and every component influencing potential for groundwater recharge using integrated remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) technique. Study conducted in Bhatgaon micro-catchment of Kosi basin revealed that 24.1% area fall under the category having good to moderate recharge potential while 61.9% area have poor to moderate recharge potential, hence found less suitable for implementation of artificial recharge structures for conservation of groundwater. A GIS-based recharge and conservation site suitability (RCSS) model was developed with unique query-based codes that would guide for suitable sites in order to implement apposite groundwater augmentation measures for sustentation of Bhatgaon micro-catchment of Kosi basin. Furthermore, this kind of study is very helpful for groundwater managers to found best suitable site for implementing groundwater augmentation measures for long-term sustainability of natural groundwater sources in hilly terrain.

Impact of Drying Methods on Essential Oil Composition of Ocimum americanum L. From Kumaun Himalayas

The present study was aimed to investigate the effect of drying on the essential oil composition and oil content of Ocimum americanum L. For the study, the aerial parts of the plant were collected from Ranikhet, district Almora and dried using different drying methods until constant weight, i.e., sun-drying (26°C ± 5°C), shade-drying (20°C ± 5°C) and oven-drying (at 35°C, 45°C and 55°C). Fresh and dried samples were hydrodistilled using Clevenger apparatus and the essential oil obtained was analyzed by GC and GC/ MS. Essential oil content was found to be the highest for sun dried (0.7%) followed by oven dried at 55°C (0.3%), shade dried (0.2%), oven dried at 35°C (0.2%), oven dried at 45°C (0.1%) and fresh sample (0.1%). 1,8-Cineole (9.14-23.67%), methyl chavicol (5.70-16.34%), β-bisabolene (7.78-29.23%) and (Z)-α-bisabolene (2.32-17.49%) were the common major constituents of all the oils under different drying methods. The essential oil composition and oil yield were greatly affected by drying methods. Sun drying could be used as the most prominent drying method for O. americanum L. A significant amount of camphor (38.34%) and highest essential oil content was present exclusively in the essential oil of sun dried material.

Morphotectonic analysis of Kosi River basin in Kumaun Lesser Himalaya: an evidence of neotectonics

The Himalayan arc is one of the prominent sites on Earth, for ongoing research on active tectonics because of the frequent occurrence of earthquakes of low-moderate intensity that occur in various sectors of the region. The present study is an attempt to decipher the active uplift and relative tectonic activity in Kosi River basin, a part of the southern Kumaun Himalayas. Several morphotectonic parameters such as asymmetry factor (AF), hypsometric integral (HI), mountain front sinuosity (Smf), channel sinuosity (S), and basin elongation ratio (Re) have been calculated with an objective to compare different sub-basins in the Kosi watershed that may prove useful in deciphering of relative tectonic activity. The watershed delineation of the Kosi River basin as well as its sub-basins, and detailed drainage network has been accomplished by using the CARTOSAT-1 DEM with the help of ArcGIS 10.3 software, using TauDEM tool and Global Mapper 18. Analysis of these morphotectonic parameters reveals that although the whole of the Kosi River basin lies in the seismically active zone, but the northern part along North Almora Thrust (NAT), central part around South Almora Thrust (SAT), Ramgarh Thrust (RT), and southern part along Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) are tectonically more active and undergoing neotectonic rejuvenation. The information derived would prove beneficial in identification of hazard prone areas and in planning of socio-economic development in mountainous terrain.

Volatile Constituents of Nepeta ciliaris Benth. roots from Kumaun Himalayas

The volatile constituents of Nepeta ciliaris Benth. roots were obtained by hydro-distillation and identified using Gas chromatography–Flame ionization detector (GC–FID) and Gas chromatography–Mass spectrometry (GC–MS) technique. Moreover, the antibacterial activity of crude oil has been carried out by using agar well diffusion method against five bacteria causing respiratory infections. Twenty compounds from essential oil of N. ciliaris were identified which represents 99.7 % of the total oil, consisting of oxygenated monoterpenoids (15.5 %), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (77.4 %), oxygenated sesquiterpenoids (3.5 %) and diterpene hydrocarbons (3.3 %). The major constituents are α-ylangene (32.1 %), β-caryophyllene (16.1 %), guaiacol (11.3 %), α-humulene (8.1 %), isolongifolene (8.0 %), trans-α-bergamotene (4.5 %), and β-cyclocitral (3.0 %) while others were present in relatively small amounts. The antibacterial assay showed significant results against test bacterial strains.

The Socio-Cultural Importance of the Worship of Shiva as Bhairava in the Kumaun Himalayas: A Historical Study of the Astha Bhairav Worship in Almora

Uttarakhand is abode of gods and home of Lord Shiva. Bhairava worshipped in Kumaun Himalayan town of Almora as most adored deity and worship is entirely different than other parts of Asia. Yet this speciality is still unrevealed for researchers and theologists. As several other towns are known for their Bhairava temples and attract devotees from different parts. Historic town of Almora is still waiting for its temples for popularity. Bhairava is worshipped as a god in the countries of South Asia including India and Nepal.

Trends in Soil Carbon Stockpile of Three Major Forests Along an Altitudinal Gradient in Indian Central Himalaya

Current investigation reveals the stock of soil organic carbon (SOC) along with altitudinal gradients in Oak (Quercus leuchotrichophora), Pine (Pinus roxburghii) and Sal (Shorea robusta) dominant forests in Shiwalik region of Kumaun Himalayas in India. The estimated soil organic carbon was found 16.0 ± 4.3 to 19.4 ± 6.4 g kg-1 for Oak, 17.8 ± 2.0 to 25.6 ± 1.6 g kg-1 for Pine and 15.8 ± 2.2 to 21.4 ± 1.9 g kg-1 for Sal forests, respectively in 0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm soil depths. SOC stock was found to be in decreasing pattern with increasing altitude from 193.6 to 166.4, 146.4 to 137.6 and 159.2 to 141.6 t C ha-1 in Oak, Pine and Sal forests, respectively. It is an indicator of higher biological activity or anthropogenic disturbance associated with top layers of these forest areas. Higher SOC was recorded in Sal forest compared to Oak. In Sal forest, high tree density leads to higher accumulation of SOC compared to conifers while it was low in wide spread Pine forest, resulting in less storage of carbon stock in turn. ECOPRINT 21: 7-13, 2014DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/eco.v21i0.11898

English

Medicinal plants constitute an effective source of traditional and modern medicine. Angelica glauca Edgew. is a high value medicinal aromatic plant species of the Himalaya. In this article, a brief profile of the herbal medicinal plant Choraka (A. glauca Edgew.) which is used in the traditional system of medicine and in folk medicines in the Kumaun Himalayas was presented. Regular supply of raw material for pharmaceuticals and ethno-medicinal uses has high pressure on demand to fulfill the demand of the raw material. Adulteration and substitution are common in raw material in trade.   Key words: Angelica glauca Edgew, Kumaun Himalaya, adulteration/substitution, trade, population study and conservation. &nbsp

Survey of radon and thoron in homes of Indian Himalaya

Measurements of radon, thoron and their progeny were carried out in some houses from Garhwal and Kumaun Himalayas of India using a LR-115 plastic track detector. The measurements were made in various residential houses of the area at a height of 2.5 m above the ground level using a twin chamber radon dosemeter, which can record the values of radon, thoron and their progeny separately. The concentrations of radon and thoron in these homes were found to vary from 11 to 191 and 1 to 156 Bq m(-3), respectively. The equilibrium factor between radon and progeny varies from 0.02 to 0.90, with an average of 0.26 for the region. The resulting dose rate due to radon, thoron and their decay products was found to vary from 0.02 to 0.84 μSv h(-1) with an arithmetic mean of 0.27 μSv h(-1). A detailed analysis of the distribution of radon, thoron and their decay products inside a house is also reported. The observed dose rates due to radon, thoron and progeny were found somewhat higher but well below the international recommendations.

Attenuation characteristics of Garwhal–Kumaun Himalayas from analysis of coda of local earthquakes

Coda of local earthquakes that occurred during 2006–2007 are used to study the attenuation characteristics of the Garhwal–Kumaun Himalayas. The coda attenuation characteristics are represented in terms of coda Q or Qc. It is observed that Qc increases with frequency. Qc also varies with increase in lapse time of coda waves. Qc increases up to an 85-s average lapse time. This is similar to observations around the world reported by many workers who have interpreted this as a manifestation of the fact that heterogeneity decreases with depth. However, around a 90-s average lapse time Qc is lower than its values for lower and higher average lapse times. This is interpreted as an indication of possible presence of a fluid-filled medium or a medium having partial melts at around a 160-km depth. Q0, i.e., Qc at 1 Hz, increases, and frequency parameter n decreases with increasing lapse time, barring around a 90-s lapse time. This again shows that in general, heterogeneity decreases with increasing depth. The Q0 and n values for smaller lapse times are similar to those for tectonically active areas. By comparing Qc values obtained in this study with those obtained by us using the 1999 Chamoli earthquake aftershocks, it is concluded that the crust is turbid and the mantle is more transparent. However, whether the variation in Qc values between 1999 and 2006–2007 is temporal or not cannot be definitely established from the available data set.