Kosovo Research Articles

Determining the Fitness Level of People with Down Syndrome Living in Kosovo Based on the ALPHA Protocol

Purpose: This study aimed to establish national norm values for body composition and fitness levels among individuals with Down syndrome. It also aimed to investigate gender differences in body composition features and fitness parameters, analyze the impact of the region where individuals with Down syndrome reside, and compare their fitness levels with international peers. Methods: The sample included 81 participants, 40 females (height: 146.6±4.88 cm, weight: 63.6±16.4 kg) and 41 males (height: 157.4±6.21 cm, weight: 66.8±14.8 kg). To assess the physical fitness levels of the participants with Down syndrome, a modified version of the ALPHA testing protocol was used. Findings: The results demonstrated significant gender differences (p<0.05) in body composition and fitness parameters, with males generally exhibiting better outcomes compared to females. Moreover, significant disparities (p<0.05) in body composition and fitness parameters were observed among individuals with Down syndrome residing in different regions of Kosovo. Noteworthy gender disparities exist in terms of body composition and physical fitness metrics, with male participants achieving superior results compared to their female counterparts. Furthermore, noticeable variations were observed among the regional Down syndrome centers, with participants from older centers displaying improved fitness metrics and body composition features compared to those from newly established facilities. Conclusion: Gender differences in body composition and fitness were evident, with males outperforming females, except in muscle mass. Future studies should explore fitness and health barriers in Kosovo's DS population, with a focus on improving physical activity through tailored strategies.

The Participation of Ethnic Groups and Minorities in Political and Institutional Life in Kosovo

Abstract This paper explores the participation and engagement of ethnic groups and minorities in Kosovo’s political and institutional life during the post-war period (after 1999) and the post-independence phase (after 2008). The involvement of minorities in Kosovo’s institutional framework is grounded in the concept of a multiethnic state, with constitutional and legal provisions ensuring their rights. These provisions enable minorities to participate in all areas of state activity within the Republic of Kosovo. The paper addresses how circumstances and opportunities for participation have evolved, the challenges, threats, and risks faced, and what legislative measures have been enacted to ensure the political and institutional representation of ethnic groups and minorities.

Phylogeography of Y-chromosome haplogroup I-P37.2 in Serbian population groups originating from distinct parts of the Balkan Peninsula

Genetic structure of the contemporary Serbian population was shaped by a long history of turbulent historical and demographical events. The most important migrations of Serbs towards present day Serbia, in the recent history, occurred between the 15th to the 18th century from the regions of Old Herzegovina and Kosovo and Metohija. Previous haplogroup analysis revealed wide spectrum of main haplogroups, among which haplogroup I-P37.2 was the most frequent one in Serbian population groups originating from the Balkan Peninsula. Within this study 464 Serbian males samples from three geographical regions in the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by Serbs: present-day Serbia, regions of Old Herzegovina and Kosovo and Metohija, previously classified as haplogroup I-P37.2, were genotyped using the 22 Y-single nucleotide polymorphisms (Y-SNPs) in order to determine deeper phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis of haplogroup I-P37.2. Based on SNP typing all samples in the Old Herzegovina and present-day Serbia dataset and 122 out of 128 samples from Kosovo and Metohija were assigned to haplogroup I-L621. Further SNP typing revealed very similar haplogroup distribution in all datasets, with the predominant haplogroup being I-PH908, followed by haplogroup I-Z17855. Analysis within haplogroup I-PH908 distinguished haplogroup I-FT14506 as the most frequent in the Kosovo and Metohija dataset, while haplogroup I-FT16449 was the most frequent in the Old Herzegovina dataset. In the present-day Serbia dataset, occurrence of haplogroups I-FT14506 and I-FT16449 was almost equal, comprising 40.2 % and 34.4 %, respectively. Low level of differentiation, within haplogroup I-PH908, was detected between all datasets, with the lowest one detected between present-day Serbia and Old Herzegovina datasets and highest one between Kosovo and Metohija and Old Herzegovina datasets. Furthermore, median-joining network analysis and shared haplotypes statistics revealed closer genetic relationship between Old Herzegovina and present-day Serbia haplotypes. Results obtained within this study support the thesis that migrations from historical region of Old Herzegovina and geographical region of Kosovo and Metohija, had great contribution on the present-day Serbian population genetic structure. Furthermore, here presented results, gave insight into geographic distribution of detected haplogroups I-Z17855, I-Y4460, I-PH908, I-Y5596, I-Y4882, I-FT14506, I-FT16449 and I-A5913 and analyzed SNPs, enabling further improvement of the geographic resolution of paternal ancestry inference.

Perceptions and Barriers to Addressing Domestic Violence: The Case of Kosovo

Domestic violence is a significant cause of human suffering and a violation of fundamental human rights. It represents one of the most prevalent forms of violence globally. The Penal Code of the Republic of Kosovo classifies domestic violence as a distinct criminal offense. This classification encompasses physical, psychological, economic, and sexual violence within familial relationships. This study aims to explore individuals' perceptions and knowledge of domestic violence. It also seeks to identify the causes, effects, and barriers faced by victims in reporting such incidents in Kosovo. A structured survey was conducted with 900 randomly selected participants from various regions of Kosovo. This survey was complemented by secondary data analysis. The secondary data included legislation on domestic violence protection, reports from international organizations, and academic literature. The mixed-methods approach facilitated a comprehensive assessment of the occurrence of domestic violence. The sample consisted of 900 individuals, ensuring diverse representation from urban and rural areas. Findings indicate that genetic predisposition is perceived as the primary cause of domestic violence, with 53% of respondents agreeing. Common effects experienced by victims include physical injury and depression, both reported by 34% of participants.

WOMEN'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIBERATION OF KOSOVO IN 1998-1999

The work brings to mind the years 1998 and 1999 in Kosovo, which brought a lot of suffering. Serbian forces carried out massacres, murders, raped women and men and destroyed almost the entire country. Approximately 90% of Kosovo Albanians were forcibly expelled from their homes. The paper brings to attention a contemporary issue, in these times of horror that are being repeated in the same form again in Ukraine and Palestine, groups of women and girls who are raped, massacred and killed, help displaced people with food, support, medical care, housing and education. Over 20 thousand Albanian women and girls were raped by the Serbs during the years 1998-1999. The harrowing narratives of Kosovar women and girls reveal the barbaric violence that the Serbs have inflicted on women, girls, mothers, children and men, who became victims of rape during the war. The role of women in Kosovo, in this war, was as important as the role of women for the creation of a new life. This research is based on real statistics of the testimonies of women and girls during the war in Kosovo. According to the records, women and girls got knowledge about weapons and ammunition and became part of the national liberation struggle. The women became the informers of the massacres that the Serbs would do in the towns and villages, preventing them. The lack of an accurate number of women participating in the war for the liberation of Kosovo means that they do not take their rightful place in this war. They deserve recognition. According to the data, there was a considerable number of women in the guerrilla BIA. Women had a key role in the liberation of the country, they must have been forgotten by the free state of Kosovo. The contribution and sacrifices of women during the war in Kosovo were unparalleled, they aimed at the war and the liberation of the Albanian lands. In many studies, this role of women in liberation has not been identified, due attention has not been paid to it, and this is related to the existence of patriarchal norms of Kosovar society. The exclusion of women from this active contribution is related to these norms and this study makes an effort to bring this contribution of women to the liberation war of Kosovo. The study brings to attention that the contribution of women during the war should be documented and be part of our oral and written history, whose contribution has been little described.

Shahids and martyrs: Conflicting national narratives and places of memory in Kosovo

Kosovo Field (Kosovo Polje), the core region of the newly independent Kosovo, experienced several key historical events, each of which left important memories in the space. As political control over territory changed, different memories connected to the area became stronger, while others were pushed into the background. The first battle of Kosovo (1389) and the death of their ruler Lazar, is a key event in Serbian history, identified through spectacular landmarks in the region. Connected to this event, Turkish monuments also exist, commemorating the death of the martyr Sultan Murad I. Following independence, memorials of Albanian fighters started mushrooming as a core element of Kosovar identity building, with the martyrdom of the “legendary commander” Adem Jashari being central to this emblematic memory project. All three nations have an “official” martyr connected to the space, around which different nation-building narratives have been constructed. As the struggle over the control and influence of the region continues, so does the competition of different memories and memorials. Territorialisation and de-territorialisation of memories are ongoing projects in the country by the three nations, linked to competing nation-buildings and political power struggles.

Mismatch between classroom furniture and anthropometric measures in children aged 3 to 6 years: Case study of the south-west region of Kosovo

Appropriate seating environments and comfort during educational activities at worktables are prerequisites for educational institutions in general. In this regard, special attention should be given to children enrolling in early childhood and kindergarten education within the pertinent institutions. Many researchers have concluded that a bad posture among children can be indicative of health problems and stagnation in the education process. The main purpose of this study is to determine whether the chairs and tables are suitable ergonomically for children aged 3 to 6. Also, in the study, the dimensions of children were analyzed and calculated to design ergonomic chairs and tables for this age group. The research was carried out within early childhood and kindergarten institutions in the southwest region of the Republic of Kosovo. Measurements were taken of 210 children in public and private institutions. According to (ISO 7250-1: 2017), field measurements include 12 body parts needed to determine furniture dimensions. The study’s findings indicate a significant mismatch between anthropometric measurements and the dimensions of furniture across all the institutions examined.

BIOACCUMULATION OF CU AND CO IN LEAFY AND FRUIT VEGETABLES FROM THE SUBURBS OF MITROVICA, KOSOVO

Contamination of vegetables with heavy metals is one of the basic environmental problems, especially in developing cities, primarily due to the uncontrolled level of pollution caused by industrial growth and the increase in the number of vehicles using petroleum fuels. This paper aims to determine the bioconcentration of heavy metals Cu and Co in leafy and fruit vegetables grown near Kosovska Mitrovica (Republic of Kosovo). Three places near Kosovska Mitrovica (Zvečan, Frashër, and Polski) are grown: parsley, spinach, lettuce, peppers, eggplant, and cucumber. All analyzed crops are from the 2023 harvest. In the same period, an analysis was made of the soil on which the crops were grown. The bioconversion factor (BF)of the selected leafy and fruit vegetables was also determined. The ICP-MS technique was used to determine the concentration of Cu and Co in soil and leafy and fruit vegetables. From the obtained analyzes it was determined that the soil in Frashër contains the highest amount of Cu and Co - 58.4 mg/kg and 11.6 mg/kg respectively. The amount of Cu in the examined dry leafy and fruit vegetables is in the range from 5.38 mg/kg to 22.4 mg/kg, and of Co from 0.27 mg/kg to 2.99 mg/kg. The bioconcentration factor of the studied leafy and fruit vegetables of Cu and Co is in the range of 0.04 to 0.26 and 0.15 to 0.65 respectively. The accumulation of Co in the analyzed vegetables is higher than the accumulation of Cu, due to the higher BF values for Co. The statistical processing of the results (t-test) showed that there is a difference in the concentration of Cu and Co between leafy and fruit vegetables, but there is no statistically significant difference because the obtained p-values are greater than the marginal p-values.

ACCUMULATION OF HEAVY METALS IN APPLES AND PEARS FROM THE SUBURBS OF MITROVICA, KOSOVO

Intake of heavy metals through the food is a food safety problem that seriously affects consumer health. Therefore, information is needed on the intake of food contaminated with heavy metals and their concentrations, to assess the potential risk for human health. This paper aims to determine the accumulation of metals in apples and pears grown in the surroundings of Kosovska Mitrovica (Republic of Kosovo) and the bioconcentration factor (BF). With the help of the ICP-MS technique, were determined the amounts of Cu, Fe, Co, Mn, Ni, and Cr in apples and pears grown in three regions - Zvečan , Frashër, and Polski. From the conducted tests, the highest concentrations in apples and pears were determined for iron (on average 100.67 mg/kg for apples and 107.4 mg/kg for pears) and the lowest concentrations for cobalt (on average 0.13 mg/kg for apples and 0.18 mg/kg for pears). The lowest bioconcentration factor in apples is 0.01 (for Fe, Co, and Mn in all three regions), and the highest is 0.32 (for Cr in Zvečan). When determining the bioconcentration factor in pears, the lowest (0.01) was determined for iron (in all three regions) and manganese (in Zvečan and Frashër regions), and the highest bioconcentration factor was determined for copper – 0.46 (Polski region). There is a very high correlation between the values obtained for the analyzed metals in apples and pears. According to BF values, pears extract twice as much Cu and Co from the soil compared to apples, and the extraction of other metals from the soil is the same for both types of fruit.

Molecular Characterization of Listeria monocytogenes in the Food Chain of the Republic of Kosovo from 2016 to 2022.

The present study describes the genetic characterization of L. monocytogenes strains found in the Republic of Kosovo's food chain. From 2016 to 2022, 995 samples were collected. Overall, 648 samples were from ready-to-eat (RTE) food products, 281 from food products consumed cooked (FPCC), 60 from raw materials, and 6 from environmental samples. Overall, 11.76% (117 out of 995) of the samples were contaminated by L. monocytogenes, comprising 6.33% (41 out of 648) from RTE products, 14.95% (42 out of 281) from FPCC, 55.00% (33 out of 60) from raw materials, and 16.66% (1 out of 6) from environmental samples. All isolates were subjected to molecular serotyping and clonal complex (CC) identification by using real-time PCR, as well as multilocus sequence typing. All isolates were grouped into four molecular serotypes, IIa (34.19%), IIb (3.48%), IIc (32.48%), and IVb (29.91%), as well as Lineage I (33.33%) and Lineage II (66.66%). In total, 14 CCs were identified from 41 RTE isolates; however, CC29 (7), CC2 (6), and CC6 (6) were the most dominant. By contrast, CC9 was by far the most represented CC in both FPCC (21) and RM (14). Moreover, 30 isolates expressed CC1, CC2, CC4, or CC6, which are particularly associated with severe human infections.

A cross-sectional study on phlebotomine sand flies in relation to disease transmission in the Republic of Kosovo.

Sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) are blood-feeding insects that transmit the protozoan parasites Leishmania spp. and various arboviruses. The Balkan region, including the Republic of Kosovo, harbours a diverse sand fly fauna. Vector species of Leishmania infantum as well as phleboviruses are endemic; however, recent data are scarce. We performed a cross-sectional study to update the current sand fly distribution in Kosovo and assess biological as well as environmental factors associated with sand fly presence. CDC light trapping was conducted at 46 locations in 2022 and 2023, specifically targeting understudied regions in Kosovo. Individual morphological species identification was supported by molecular barcoding. The occurrence data of sand flies was used to create distribution maps and perform environmental analyses, taking elevation, wind speed and climate-related factors into account. In addition, PCR-based blood meal analysis and pathogen screening were conducted. Overall, 303 specimens of six sand fly species were trapped, predominated by Phlebotomus neglectus (97%). Barcodes from eight of nine known endemic sand fly species were obtained. Combining our data with previous surveys, we mapped the currently known sand fly distribution based on more than 4000 specimens at 177 data points, identifying Ph. neglectus and Ph. perfiliewi as the predominant species. Environmental analyses depicted two geographical groups of sand flies in Kosovo, with notable differences between the species. In total, 223 blood meals of five sand fly species were analysed. Of seven identified host species, the predominant blood meal source was observed to be cattle, but the DNA of dogs and humans, among others, was also detected. This study assessed biological as well as ecological factors of sand fly occurrence, which should help better understand and evaluate potential hot spots of disease transmission in Kosovo.

Challenges in Human Resource Management for Employee Retention in Private Companies: Case Study of the Private Sector in the Republic of Kosovo, Pristina

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the challenges faced by private companies in Pristina, Republic of Kosovo, in managing their human resources and retaining employees between 2014 and 2023. The research focused on understanding the influence of HR technology and the financial implications associated with employee turnover, particularly in relation to human resource management practices that impact employee retention. Theoretical Framework: The study was based on contemporary HRM theories, focusing on the evolving HR landscape due to demographic shifts, the "war for talent," and the COVID-19 pandemic. It also examined how HR technology enhances employee engagement and supports data-driven decision-making. Method: A mixed-methods research design was employed, involving structured surveys distributed to employees from various private companies in Pristina using probability sampling. The study collected quantitative data on job satisfaction and employee engagement, offering a comprehensive view of the multifaceted challenges faced by these companies. Results and Discussion: The findings showed a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction and turnover, and a positive correlation between engagement and intention to stay, highlighting the importance of both for employee retention. Research Implications: The study highlights the need for private companies in Pristina to enhance job satisfaction and employee engagement to reduce turnover. It recommends implementing customized HR policies and regular monitoring to tackle these issues effectively. Originality/Value: This study enriches the literature by analyzing HRM in Pristina's private sector. It underscores the need to adapt to demographic shifts, tackle talent acquisition issues, and use HR technology to boost employee retention.

Assessment of implementation of biosecurity measures on livestock farms in three regions of Kosovo

Biosecurity is a multicomponent procedure that encompasses risk analysis and management strategies relevant to human, animal and plant life, as well as environmental risk assessment. The aim of this study was to assess data related to biosecurity measures implemented by farmers on cattle, sheep and goat farms in Kosovo. A total of 36 farms from three regions of Kosovo, Pristina, Ferizaj and Peja were included. A questionnaire consisting of one open-ended question and 37 closed questions was administered directly to farmers, and the current on-farm situation was observed by the investigators. Based on the collected results, 86% of farms were cattle farms, 8% were sheep farms, and 6% were goat farms. Among all the farms visited, 67% of them operated with a combined system, 28% with a closed system and only 5% operated with an open system. The vast majority of participants (81%) declared that they did not have sufficient knowledge about the term biosecurity, whereas 11% of them were moderately familiar with the term biosecurity and only 8% of them were quite familiar with the term. 83% reported that their animals undergo a veterinary health check only when necessary. Other biosecurity measures applied less frequently included: showering before entering the farm, specific clothing and shoes for visitors, animal quarantine, disinfection and systematic plan for insect and rodent control. We propose that there is room for improving the level of on-farm biosecurity by enhancing practical training and information from localinstitutions. We conclude that routine integration of biosecurity measures was not demonstrated by most farmers in their management practices and that there is significant room for improvement concerning the level of biosecurity in Kosovo.

The estimation of different body dimensions of children aged 6-11 years for the needs of furniture designers.

There are some rules that furniture designers must take into consideration to design ergonomic furniture. The main design principle is the target group for which the furniture will be designed, considering the dimensions of people who use the furniture. The paper presents the correlation between 12 parts of children's body, as well as the proportion between stature and 11 other parts of the body which are used for the purposes of furniture and interior designers. Field measurements include: Stature (S), Sitting height (She), Shoulder height (Sh), Popliteal height (Ph), Hip width (Hb), Elbow rest height (Erh), Buttock-popliteal length (Bpl), Buttock-knee length (Bkl), Thigh clearance (Tc), Eye height sitting (Eh), Knee height (Kh) and Shoulder breadth (Sb) to pupils aged 6-11 (grades 1 to 5). The measurements were done in 687 children in 12 primary schools in 4 different regions in Kosovo. The data of the study shows that, in general, there is a correlation (in some parts strong and in some medium) for the measured parts. Also, the study presents the proportion between the stature and other parts of the body which are necessary for the design of children's furniture. Using this data will enable furniture designers to easily target the dimensions of the group they will design, even by measuring only one dimension, i.e. stature and then setting the proportions for each piece separately.

Distribution of Heavy Metals in the Surrounding Mining Region of Kizhnica in Kosovo

This study investigated the distribution of heavy metals in agricultural soils in the vicinity of three large mining landfills of the Kizhnica mine in the Republic of Kosovo. The mining sector is one of the most important sectors of Kosovo’s economic development, and the Kizhnica mine is one of the most important ore producers in Kosovo. Besides the positive aspects, the development of production also has some negative side effects, such as the generation of industrial waste and the possible contamination of surrounding areas, including agricultural land. Therefore, ten sampling sites were selected in the vicinity of the Kizhnica mine. These sites were characterized and assessed as the most important due to the anthropogenic impact of mineral processing and open-tailing waste deposits in Kizhnica. The concentration of Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Cd, Ni, Mn and Sb in the selected samples was determined using inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry. The data obtained were used to create geochemical maps and calculate the contamination factor, pollution load index and geoaccumulation index. Cluster analysis, Pearson correlation coefficient and air spatial distribution patterns using the air dispersion model were used to evaluate within the area. The results showed that heavy metal levels are influenced by the anthropogenic nature of pollution, confirming a current ecological threat from mining activities in the region. In order to improve waste management, reduce the hazardous impacts of mining and contribute to the sustainable development of the region, the potential reuse of the deposited waste material in the construction industry is proposed.

Impact of Consumer Preferences on Kosovo’s Foreign Trade

In marketing, consumer behavior is a crucial factor in the placement of products in the market and is often the subject of study and research by large companies to identify the needs of citizens and their behavior as consumers in the buying decision process. Consumer buying behavior refers to the buying behavior of final consumers—individuals and households that buy goods and services for personal consumption (Kotler et al., 1999). A company that truly understands how consumers will respond to different product features, pricing, and advertising appeals has a significant advantage over its competitors. The factors that influence consumer behavior are the key elements that companies analyze and aim to break down in order to "attract" customers. This paper will examine the factors of consumer behavior and their impact on increasing/decreasing imports in trade with several countries with which Kosovo has international trade relations. The phenomenon of ethnocentrism will also be examined, a phenomenon that has emerged in every nation in recent years and is more pronounced in the Republic of Kosovo. Finally, an empirical analysis will be presented, highlighting the relationship between imports and import prices.

THE STRUGGLE FOR TRUTH: UNVEILING EFFORTS TO DISCREDIT THE HISTORY AND STABILITY OF KOSOVO

This paper examines three cases of espionage arrests in Kosovo, involving two Serbian individuals and two Albanians linked to the Serbian Information and Security Agency (BIA). The aim of these spies was to discredit the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), alter the narrative of the Reçak massacre, create a “yellow house” similar to the one in northern Albania, and destabilize the state of Kosovo by inciting interethnic conflicts. Through the analysis of specific cases and motivation theories, this paper sheds light on the reasons why individuals engage in espionage against their own country, Serbia’s efforts to manipulate the history and stability of the region and the tendencies to invade Kosovo.

Integrated Management of Water Resources - Case Study Municipality Drenas (Gllogoc), Republic of Kosovo

Objective: The objective of this research was to identify the legal framework and the institutional structure which directly or indirectly has duties and responsibilities in the integrated management of water resources. Theoretical framework: Research, studies and written and electronic literature continue to deal with the concept of integrated management of water resources as a basis for the preservation and protection of this vital resource for life and the activities related to it. Methods: Institutional structures, legal framework, administrative guidelines, strategies and plans were taken into consideration to derive results related to the integrated management of water resources in the territory of the Municipality of Drenas. Results and Coclusions: Based on the research work and the results achieved, this research (study) not only highlights the responsibilities and obligations related to the integrated management of water resources, but provides a basis for a strategic planning in the direction of advancing the competences and responsibility of the Municipality of Drenas in water management and their development. Implications of research: This research with the achieved results interweaves theoretical parts, legal regulations and experiences in the integrated management of water resources in general and in particular for the case study in the administrative territory of the Municipality of Drenas. Originality/value: The results and conclusions shown in this paper are based on authentic data which constitute and preserve its original value.

Excessive Self-Medication with Prescription NSAIDs: A Cross-Sectional Study in Kosovo.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly used to manage pain, fever, and inflammation. Although most are usually classified as prescription-only medicines, in many countries they are frequently purchased for self-medication purposes. This study explores NSAID-usage patterns in Kosovo, aiming for a safer and more effective medicinal use. The study employed a dual approach to collect data. First, NSAID sales were analyzed in a convenience sample of ten community pharmacies across diverse regions in Kosovo in 2023. Second, data on NSAID-usage patterns and patient awareness were systematically gathered from 410 patients during routine pharmacist-patient interactions. The four most commonly purchased NSAIDs according to sales analysis were diclofenac (33.1%), ketoprofen (27.6%), ibuprofen (17.0%) and nimesulide (12.7%). A significant 74.8% of NSAIDs were bought without prescriptions, particularly among younger adults (20-39 years), who accounted for 82.8% of such purchases. The predominant reason for NSAID use was headache (43.8%). Although many of the patients suffered from occasional (33.7%) or frequent (12.6%) stomachaches and took acid-lowering medicines, the majority (85.9%) could not recall any NSAID adverse reactions. This study exposes widespread self-medication and a significant lack of awareness regarding potential risks of NSAIDs, particularly among young adults. To address these issues, it is critical to improve dispensing practices through increased pharmacist awareness and stricter law enforcement.

Ecological setting of phlebotomine sand flies in the Republic of Kosovo

Sand flies (Diptera, Psychodidae) are the principal vectors of Leishmania spp., the causative agents of leishmaniasis, as well as phleboviruses. In the Balkans, the endemicity and spreading of sand fly-borne diseases are evident, particularly in the Republic of Kosovo, a country with a predominantly humid continental climate. To date, understanding the drivers behind the spatial structure and diversity patterns of sand fly communities in humid continental regions remains limited. Therefore, elucidating the geographical and ecological factors contributing to the presence of potential vector species in the country is crucial. We aimed to enhance our understanding of factors influencing sand fly occurrence in cool and wet wintering humid continental areas, which could serve as a model for other countries with similar climatic conditions. Therefore, we assessed the currently known sand fly fauna through detailed environmental analyses, including Voronoi tessellation patterns, entropy calculations, Principal Coordinate and Component Analyses, Hierarchical Clustering, Random Trees, and climatic suitability patterns.Notable differences in the ecological tolerance of the species were detected, and the most important climatic features limiting sand fly presence were wind speed and temperature seasonality. Sand flies were observed to prefer topographical environments with little roughness, and the modelled climatic suitability values indicated that, dominantly, the western plain regions of Kosovo harbour the most diverse sand fly fauna; and are the most threatened by sand fly-borne diseases. Phlebotomus neglectus and P. perfiliewi, both confirmed vectors for L. infantum and phleboviruses, were identified as two main species with vast distribution in Kosovo. Contrary to this, most other present species are relatively sparse and restricted to temperate rather than humid continental regions.Our findings reveal a diverse potential sand fly fauna in Kosovo, indicating the need for tailored strategies to address varying risks across the country's western and eastern regions in relation to leishmaniasis control amidst changing environmental conditions.