Korup National Park Research Articles

Hunting for Bushmeat Threatens the Rich Wildlife of Korup National Park in Cameroon

Studied bushmeat hunting in the southwest (cluster E) of the Korup National Park (KNP) to identify the various poaching methods, quantify bushmeat, and identify the various hunting routes and to elucidate the key factors of poaching within this protected area. To achieve this task, purposeful and random sampling methods were used for the selection of target communities and respondents for questionnaires administration. Socio-economic surveys that included interviews, focus group discussions, guided questionnaires, and biological survey methods were used to estimate the quantity of bush meat harvested, species preferences, different bush meat routes and poaching methods. A total of 2,252 animals has been recorded with the most hunted species in the group of mammals being (pangolin) <i>Phataginus</i> sp. (150), (putty-nosed monkey) <i>Cercopithecus nictitans</i> (111), (great blue turaco)<i> Corythaeola cristata </i>(134), and (dwarf crocodile)<i> Osteolaemus tetraspis </i>(70). The main poaching tools in order of importance were shotguns (36.2%) followed by wire snares (31.7%). The main bush meat route identified was between the southwestern area of KNP and Nigeria through Ekong Anaku village. The main poaching factors were the inadequate source of income generating activities and high demand for bush meat in neighboring Nigeria. In parallel to the socio-economic benefits of this sector and its impact on rural population, the sustainable management of these threats in this area needs to be managed so as to guarantee the food security of local populations. For this, the successful monitoring and management of bushmeat extraction and trade in this park is to necessitate a collaboration approach with Cross River National Park to ensure a full control. It also requires the development of the alternatives sources of income to communities around the park.

Distribution parameters of large mammals and conservation management in an Afrotropical forest landscape and biodiversity hotspot

AbstractThough there is consent that poaching is an important driver of wildlife declines in many African forests, we lack a deeper understanding of the factors behind population patterns in Afrotropical landscapes to inform conservation management. We surveyed line transects in four Cameroonian sites of different protection status in 2013/2014, namely Korup National Park, Banyang Mbo Wildlife Reserve, one timber concession and a section of an unprotected agroforestry matrix, and used data from 2007 for trend assessment. We used GLMs to identify predictors for mammal distribution based on a set of variables. While species compositions showed complex trend patterns, it is noteworthy that chimpanzee and elephant abundances declined significantly in the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Reserve. Although landscape management type affected the distribution of most mammal species, anthropogenic or environmental variables were strong predictors. Chimpanzee, elephant and drill abundances were higher at a larger distance to settlements. Vegetation density positively affected a number of species, including chimpanzee and red colobus. Several species were more abundant in rough terrain, probably because of reduced poaching. Our results suggest that protected areas in Southwest Cameroon had a mitigating effect on wildlife declines, mainly due to their remoteness and habitat quality, rather than management interventions.

Indications of an Achaea sp. caterpillar outbreak disrupting fruiting of an ectomycorrhizal tropical tree in Central African rainforest

Background and aims – Where one or several tree species come to dominate patches of tropical forest, as many masting ectomycorrhizal legumes do in Central Africa, ecological theory predicts they may be prone to herbivory, which might alter their reproductive output. This was indirectly investigated in lowland rainforest in Cameroon for Tetraberlinia korupensis, whose crowns were attacked in 2008 by an outbreaking black caterpillar—identified as an Achaea sp., probably A. catocaloides—in Korup National Park. Material and methods – Field-collected data on tree-level seed and fruit (pod) production of T. korupensis in its 2008 masting event were compared with that of its two co-dominant neighbours (T. bifoliolata, Microberlinia bisulcata), whose populations masted in 2007 (and 2010). To do this, bivariate regression models (linear, polynomial, ZiG [zero-inflated gamma model]), contingency table analysis, and non-parametric measures of dispersion were used. Key results – Assuming T. korupensis is prone to Achaea caterpillar attacks, empirical data support the hypothesized lower proportion of adults participating in its masting (54% in 2008) than for either masting population of M. bisulcata (98% in 2007, 89% in 2010) or T. bifoliolata (96% in 2007, 78% in 2010). These fruiting T. korupensis trees were about one-third larger in stem diameter than conspecific non-fruiters and produced as many pods and seeds per capita as T. bifoliolata. However, regressions only modestly support the hypothesis that the positive tree size–fecundity relationship for T. korupensis was weaker (i.e. lower adj. R2) than for M. bisulcata (whose leaves are morphologically similar) or T. bifoliolata, with mostly similar dispersion about the median among these species. Conclusion – Altogether, the findings suggest a role for tolerance in nutrient-poor forests. It is postulated that instead of conferring resistance to herbivores, the ectomycorrhizas associated with these trees may enable them to more quickly recover from potential yet unpredictable insect outbreaks.

Rural Community Agency in Cameroon: Interactions with Forest Policies and the REDD+ Climate Change Regime

Community forestry around the world has demonstrated its potential for implementing the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) climate change program. Secure tenure rights and access to rule-making are known as contributing to successful community forestry outcomes. Still, the effects of different aspects of rural ‘community agency’ are not well established. We investigate forest governance and conflicts and the relationships between aspects of rural community agency under the REDD+ climate change program in two forest communities—the villages of Fabe and Mosongiseli—near the southern portion of the Korup National Park in Cameroon. Using data from a survey instrument and interviews, we analyze, using “agency theory”, the concept of rural community agency according to dimensions of attitudes, understandings, and empowerment in the two communities in relation to forest governance and conflicts under REDD+. Our findings indicate a variety of power relations (e.g., on the communities’ use and management rights of their lands) and existential threats of conflicts within the communities (e.g., violation of the communities’ free, prior, and informed consent). The results also show that both communities share many of the patterns of diversity and integration to a similar extent. Although there is no definitive distinction between the two communities, the findings suggest that some differences exist in their degree of integration. Understanding and describing the nature of the power relations and threats of conflicts comprises an important component to begin an appreciation for the communities’ user group characteristics as these relate to the REDD+ program when implemented. The implication of this study is that threats of conflicts may increase when the villagers’ perception of the potential costs of losing their lands to REDD+ is formed by their experiences with current restrictions on the use and management rights of their lands.

Continued availability and sale of pangolins in a major urban bushmeat market in Cameroon despite national bans and the COVID-19 outbreak.

Continued availability and sale of pangolins in a major urban bushmeat market in Cameroon despite national bans and the COVID-19 outbreak.

Indigenous Peoples' Management of Forest and Wildlife Resources: Case study of Local Communities in the Southern Periphery of the Korup National Park, Southwest Region, Cameroon

Indigenous Peoples' Management of Forest and Wildlife Resources: Case study of Local Communities in the Southern Periphery of the Korup National Park, Southwest Region, Cameroon

The structure of Leguminosae-Detarioideae dominant rain forest in Korup National Park, Cameroon

Background and aims – We studied a cluster of trees in the Leguminosae subfamily Detarioideae, to: (1) determine the size, structure, and tree species composition of this cluster; (2) map the size, shape, and structure of groups of individual Detarioideae tree species in the cluster.Location – Lowland rain forest in southern Korup National Park, in the Southwest Region of Cameroon.Material and methods – Trees in permanent plots were recorded using standard plot enumeration techniques. Outside plots, single-species tree groups were recorded by a rapid technique. From this data, detailed maps of groups of trees were prepared.Key results – Detarioideae tree species occur co-dominant in a cluster of at least 32 km2 with an irregular shape. The cluster contained at least 42 Detarioideae tree species; at least 29 of these occurred in groups ranging in size from 50 to 4000 m across, depending on the species. Groups usually had circular shapes, caused by ballistic seed dispersal. In a group, trees were always mixed with trees of several other Detarioideae species. Every area within the cluster contained a specific set of Detarioideae species. The percentage of Detarioideae trees ≥ 60 cm stem diameter on 50 ha was up to 76% in Detarioideae-rich forest, to 6% in Detarioideae-poor forest. Of all trees in the centre of the cluster, 2.8% belonged to pioneer forest species, which indicates that disturbance levels were low during the past generations of trees.Discussion – The forests in the Detarioideae cluster have not been subject to substantial human and natural impacts in historic or prehistoric times. Such forests are exceptional in Africa. Detarioideae clusters may indicate glacial age forest refuges, especially clusters that contain both many different Detarioideae species and some Detarioideae species endemic to the cluster.

What structures diurnal visitation rates to flowering trees in an Afrotropical lowland rainforest understory?

Abstract As environmental change and degradation accelerate, perturbing insect populations, we need to better understand the resource use dynamics of diverse wild pollinators. Most tropical trees are adapted for biotic pollination, yet we still know little about plant–pollinator interactions in African rainforests. We addressed this gap from a community perspective, identifying what floral traits – colour, scent, reward accessibility and visibility – structure visitation patterns among insect functional groups to tree species flowering in the understory of Korup National Park, Cameroon. To understand how visitor groups share resources, we used joint modelling that explicitly considers zero‐inflation in visitation rates and correlation among visitor groups. Most tree species had exposed floral rewards, and all were visited by multiple insect groups among which ants, bees, beetles, and flies were most abundant. Visitation rates varied more among tree species than among individual trees. Floral scent differences were important for structuring visits, particularly for flies, bees, and ants. Ant and bee visitation rates decreased while fly visits increased marginally throughout the season, correlated with the dry to wet season transition. Comparison with other lowland tropical understories suggests flies may be uniquely diverse and important to this system, and differences in seasonality and forest structure may be drivers of community differences. Floral scent is likely a key functional trait structuring flower–insect interactions in tropical forest environments and should be emphasised in future studies. Lastly, a joint modelling approach can elucidate community structure, particularly in communities with ecologically generalised interactions.

Power imbalances, social inequalities and gender roles as barriers to true participation in national park management: The case of Korup National Park, Cameroon

Forest resource management has undergone profound changes in the last decades, including a tendency to apply participatory approach that seeks to involve local communities. However, the success of the participatory approach tends to remain dependent on the historical and societal context in question. To understand how the participation of forest communities has been changing as a result of the enforcement or non-enforcement of forest management practices, we carried out a study in Cameroon's Korup National Park, with villages within and outside the park that continue to utilise the resources in the park. The empirical research included focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews in three communities and key informant interviews with selected community members, government officials, and non-governmental organisations involved in the park's management. Research findings show that although the forest management system has changed in various policy documents, over the past years from a top-down to participatory approach, a centralised state system is still operational in the national park, with participatory approaches used merely as a legitimizing tool. We show how the existing horizontal power relations (such as gender roles within the communities) and vertical power relations (such as government-community dimensions) simultaneously impact the outcomes of participatory approaches on the ground. Finally, our case shows how the existing governance structures continue to reproduce inequalities and exclusions that originated from the colonial times and through path dependency still influence livelihoods and day-to-day survival of people in the communities.

Population Status of the Critically Endangered Preuss’s Red Colobus Monkey (Piliocolobus preussi Matschie 1900) and Recommendations for Its Conservation

Overhunting and habitat loss from the expansion of agriculture and extractive industries are the primary threats to primate species, 65% of which are threatened with extinction. In Africa, red colobus (Piliocolobus spp.) are the most endangered group of monkeys due to their vulnerability to these human pressures. The conservation status of the Critically Endangered Preuss’s red colobus (P. preussi), found in southeastern Nigeria and western Cameroon, is not well understood, impeding conservation efforts. We reviewed historical records and recent data on the distribution and abundance of Preuss’s red colobus to assess the species’ population status and provide recommendations for its conservation. Preuss’s red colobus has historically been found in two widely separated populations: one in the contiguous transboundary forests of Nigeria’s Cross River National Park (Oban) and Cameroon’s Korup National Park, and the other in Cameroon’s Ebo–Makombe–Ndokbou forests. Today, Preuss’s red colobus is mostly restricted to Korup and Oban and has largely disappeared from the Ebo–Makombe–Ndokbou forests. Systematic surveys indicate that the population in Korup, where Preuss’s red colobus reaches its highest density, has declined over the last 30 years with possibly 3290–4430 red colobus monkeys remaining. Improving protection of the Korup–Oban population, through improved law enforcement, transboundary conservation, ecological monitoring, and engagement with adjacent local communities, is essential to secure the long-term survival of Preuss’s red colobus. Locating and protecting remnant groups in other forests is also urgently needed. Protecting Preuss’s red colobus will help safeguard some of West Africa’s largest remaining intact forests and other threatened wildlife species.

Boots on the ground: the role of passive acoustic monitoring in evaluating anti-poaching patrols

SummaryPassive acoustic monitoring is rapidly gaining recognition as a practical, affordable and robust tool for measuring gun hunting levels within protected areas, and consequently for its potential to evaluate anti-poaching patrols’ effectiveness based on outcome (i.e., change in hunting pressure) rather than effort (e.g., kilometres patrolled) or output (e.g., arrests). However, there has been no report to date of a protected area successfully using an acoustic grid to explore baseline levels of gun hunting activity, adapting its patrols in response to the evidence extracted from the acoustic data and then evaluating the effectiveness of the new patrol strategy. We report here such a case in Cameroon’s Korup National Park, where anti-poaching patrol effort was markedly increased in the 2015–2016 Christmas/New Year holiday season to curb the annual peak in gunshots recorded by a 12-sensor acoustic grid in the same period during the previous 2 years. Despite a three- to five-fold increase in patrol days, distance and area covered, the desired outcome – lower gun hunting activity – was not achieved under the new patrol scheme. The findings emphasize the need for adaptive wildlife law enforcement and how passive acoustic monitoring can help attain this goal, and they warn about the risks of using effort-based metrics of anti-poaching strategies as a surrogate for desired outcomes. We propose ways of increasing protected areas’ capacity to adopt acoustic grids as a law enforcement monitoring tool.

Bush Mango (Irvingia spp.) As an Important Alternative Livelihood Source for the Indigenes of the Korup National Park Communities, South West Cameroon

Bush Mango (Irvingia spp.) As an Important Alternative Livelihood Source for the Indigenes of the Korup National Park Communities, South West Cameroon

Heterogeneity and Collective Action: Community Integration Appraisal for REDD+ Forest Management Implementation

This study employs in-depth qualitative and quantitative research methods including survey and other ethnographic methods, concept mapping and informal qualitative observations to investigate community interaction in the village of Fabe near the Korup National Park in Cameroon, in relation to the reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) program. It is argued that community integration is a function of three structures: geographical, social and hierarchical. In order to establish hierarchy, the authors applied differentiation along three categorical variables, age (young vs. old), gender (male vs. female) and place of origin (locals vs. non-locals). It was found that diversity exists within the sample in terms of education, age, gender, occupation, religion, land tenure and place of origin. Youth had greater levels of education compared to older population members, and women had lower education levels than men. Integration may be affected by group membership, but women and strangers were less involved in decision-making. Strangers had additional barriers to accessing institutional processes, as well as forestlands and their resources. However, because integration does not vary between demographic groups, there is potential for individuals to generalize their interests as being synonymous with those of others in the community, which could aid in improving collective action, especially through educating community members about risks, opportunities, and their rights in relation to the REDD+ program if it becomes operational.

Constitutionality and the Co-Management of Protected Areas: Reflections from Cameroon and Myanmar

This article discusses the co-management experiences of two tropical protected areas – the Korup National Park (KNP) in Cameroon, and the Natma Taung National Park (NTNP) in Myanmar. The discussion is anchored on the constitutionality construct and opens up reflections to guide future management processes and outcomes for protected areas. Based on a review of articles and institutional reports, complemented by interviews and focus group discussions, we comparatively analyze the manifestations of two constitutionality principles in co-management around the KNP and NTNP, and discuss future co-management perspectives. The paper concludes with reflections on how local level institutions could be activated in protected area management, especially with respect to enforcing catalyzing agents and improving state motivation and recognition of local institutional processes. The results do not only provide necessary ingredients to improve the institution-building process if co-management must become adaptive, but equally opens up new research avenues in the context of local power play and social learning. We argue that further studies should seek to understand conditions, under which catalyzing agents and the state could support and recognize endogenous institution-building processes to improve resource management outcomes.

Occurrence patterns of African manatees, conflicts with humans, and local perception in the Southern Korup Area, Cameroon

Abstract The African manatee has been poorly studied throughout its range and is heavily hunted. This study aimed at discerning patterns in manatee sightings and emerging conflicts with humans, as well as the local perception of manatees, outside the southern periphery of Korup National Park, Cameroon. The study investigated whether patterns in manatee sightings and manatee‐related conflicts differ between aquatic systems in southern Korup, and which demographic variables determine perceptions of the manatee in the study area. For this purpose, the study used a three‐stage stratified random sampling design with a structured questionnaire to survey 101 local fishers. The reported patterns of manatee sightings and manatee‐related conflicts were as follows: in the Nyangorobe River during the wet season only, where crop raiding and net destruction by manatees were reported; in the Ndian River and the mangrove estuary only during the dry season, where fish theft and net damage were reported; and in the Moko River during both seasons, where crop raiding, fish theft, and net destruction were reported. Reducing these conflicts is likely to increase local support for the conservation of manatees, because fishermen kill them in response to net destruction and fish loss. Most reported sightings were at waterway intersections and river bends, suggesting that waterway connectivity is important to manatees for dispersal, foraging, and escape from danger. The log‐odds probability of negative perception decreased significantly with awareness of manatee protected status but increased with age and primary or higher education level. These findings have implications for community outreach focused on raising awareness of the importance of manatee conservation by schoolchildren and the public.

Congo Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus densities in oil palm plantation, agroforestry mosaic and protected forest in Southwest Cameroon – ERRATUM

The Congo Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus has experienced a severe population breakdown in recent decades. The rainforests of the Korup region in Southwest Cameroon may harbour a large population of this species, but density and population estimates from this area remain controversial. Before the 2016 breeding season, we surveyed Grey Parrots along transects (621.1 km survey effort) in three adjacent landscape types: primary forest in Korup National Park (KNP), smallholder agroforestry matrix (AFM), and industrial oil palm plantation (OPP). We also collected information on the trees used for nesting, feeding and roosting. Using Distance analysis, we estimated relatively low densities of stationary flocks, ranging from 0.30 ind./km2 in KNP, over 0.82 ind./km2 in OPP to 2.70 ind./km2 in the AFM. Parrots were observed feeding or roosting in 17 tree species, of which 15 were located in AFM alone. Feeding was most often observed on cultivated Elaeis guineensis and Dacryodes edulis, but never in maize. The detected parrot densities probably reflect declines within the period 2008–2016, suggesting that the species’ recent IUCN uplisting to ‘Endangered’ and transfer to CITES Appendix I was indeed justified. Our results also suggest that traditional smallholder agroforestry may play a role in habitat conservation strategies, since these forms of cultivation may maintain important breeding and feeding opportunities for Congo Grey Parrots.

Extinction thresholds and negative responses of Afrotropical ant-following birds to forest cover loss in oil palm and agroforestry landscapes

Afrotropical ant-following birds are vulnerable to forest loss and disturbance, but critical habitat thresholds regarding their abundance and species richness in human-dominated landscapes, including industrial oil palm plantations, have never been assessed. We measured forest cover through Landsat imagery and recorded species richness and relative abundance of 20 ant-following birds in 48 plots of 1-km2, covering three landscapes of Southwest Cameroon: Korup National Park, smallholder agroforestry areas (with farms embedded in forest), and an industrial oil palm plantation. We evaluated differences in encounter frequency and species richness among landscapes, and the presence of critical thresholds through enhanced adaptive regression through hinges. All species were detected in Korup National Park and the agroforestry landscape, which had similar forest cover (>85%). Only nine species were found in the oil palm plantation (forest cover=10.3±3.3%). At the 1-km2 scale, the number of species and bird encounters were comparable in agroforests and the protected area: mean species richness ranged from 12.2±0.6 in the park and 12.2±0.6 in the agroforestry matrix to 1.0±0.4 in the industrial oil palm plantation; whereas encounters decreased from 34.4±3.2 to 26.1±2.9 and 1.3±0.4, respectively. Bird encounters decreased linearly with decreasing forest cover, down to an extinction threshold identified at 24% forest cover. Species richness declined linearly by ca. one species per 7.4% forest cover lost. We identified an extinction threshold at 52% forest cover for the most sensitive species (Criniger chloronotus, Dicrurus atripennis, and Neocossyphus poensis). Our results show that substantial proportions of forests are required to sustain complete ant-following bird assemblages in Afrotropical landscapes and confirm the high sensitivity of this bird guild to deforestation after industrial oil palm development. Securing both forest biodiversity and food production in an Afrotropical production landscape may be best attained through a combination of protected areas and wildlife-friendly agroforestry.

Congo Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus densities in oil palm plantation, agroforestry mosaic and protected forest in Southwest Cameroon*

SummaryThe Congo Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus has experienced a severe population breakdown in recent decades. The rainforests of the Korup region in Southwest Cameroon may harbour a large population of this species, but density and population estimates from this area remain controversial. Before the 2016 breeding season, we surveyed Grey Parrots along transects (621.1 km survey effort) in three adjacent landscape types: primary forest in Korup National Park (KNP), smallholder agroforestry matrix (AFM), and industrial oil palm plantation (OPP). We also collected information on the trees used for nesting, feeding and roosting. Using Distance analysis, we estimated relatively low densities of stationary flocks, ranging from 0.30 ind./km2 in KNP, over 0.82 ind./km2 in OPP to 2.70 ind./km2 in the AFM. Parrots were observed feeding or roosting in 17 tree species, of which 15 were located in AFM alone. Feeding was most often observed on cultivated Elaeis guineensis and Dacryodes edulis, but never in maize. The detected parrot densities probably reflect declines within the period 2008–2016, suggesting that the species’ recent IUCN uplisting to ‘Endangered’ and transfer to CITES Appendix I was indeed justified. Our results also suggest that traditional smallholder agroforestry may play a role in habitat conservation strategies, since these forms of cultivation may maintain important breeding and feeding opportunities for Congo Grey Parrots.

The Effects of Road Access on Income Generation. Evidence from An Integrated Conservation and Development Project in Cameroon

Many integrated conservation and development projects use road construction to induce a shift in income activities, since road access can reduce both poverty and environmental degradation. There is, however, little empirical evidence on the effects of road access on income patterns. We contribute to existing literature by analyzing the effects of road access on income activity choice in Korup National Park, Cameroon using a difference-in-difference approach. Road access led to a rise in total household income by 38% due to higher household participation in self-employment and wage labor. We neither found an effect on income from crop farming nor on participation in hunting activities. The effects of road access can be diverse and unforeseeable. Road construction in protected areas should thus be carefully considered and planned and only be implemented when other options are not feasible.

English

Worldwide understorey nesting bird species such as bulbuls can also be highly vulnerable to nest predation in disturbed landscapes because they breed mainly on the lower stage of the forest. We test the following hypotheses: the transformation of forests into alternative land use systems and the vegetation’s variables at the nesting sites will affect the understorey nest predation rates. The nests of 12 understorey bird species were surveyed and vegetation variables were measured within five types of habitats along a gradient of increasing forest destruction in the north-eastern peripheral zone of the Korup National Park in Cameroon. Only the open-cup nest type suffers from predation, mostly egg predation. The general linear mixed model analysis suggests that the types of habitat do not affect nest daily predation rate which decreases with increasing trees and understorey plant density. The most deleterious impact of deforestation in this study area is the reduction of nesting sites whose characteristics remain unchanged across the landscape. These results underscore the need to give understorey nesting species, as well as other particularly sensitive groups, special consideration within conservation strategies such as the reduced-impact logging techniques.   Key words: Cameroon, deforestation, land-use system, nest predation, understorey birds.