Kohlberg's Model Research Articles

Back to the Past—An Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Immersive Historical Environments on Empathy and Morality

Abstract Immersive environments are known for fostering empathy via their technological properties that offer users the opportunity to get immersed in a virtual environment and take other perspectives. As empathy and perspective-taking are considered to be the basis of moral development, the present study examines the potential of historical immersive media applications for the individual's moral development according to Kohlberg's stage model (1958). An integrative approach was used to examine the role of technological immersion as well as the recipients’ immersion (presence, transportation) in eliciting empathy and promoting moral development and behavior. Therefore, an online experiment with one factorial between-subject design was conducted in which participants (N = 289) were exposed to historical media that differed only in their extent of technological immersion; participants either read a text, or watched a video, or a 360° video. In line with previous research, results showed that technological immersion positively affects presence, while transportation was not influenced by technological aspects. Furthermore, results revealed positive effects of transportation and presence on empathy which, in turn, was positively related to moral orientation and behavior. The study indicates that immersive historical environments can promote empathy and morality due to their immersive characteristics.

Exploring the effect of unfair work contexts on the development of fairness beliefs

This paper examines what happens when individuals who perceive a fair situation discover that the situation is in fact, unfair. In a previous study, women who sued their universities discussed their initial expectations that the university would treat them fairly despite several studies that clearly indicated discrimination at universities is still a problem (Goltz, 2005a). Thus, using interview excerpts from this past study, the current paper explores how these women's expectations of fairness may have been formed, as well as how they changed after a discriminatory experience. Results suggest that the women's expectations of fairness arose in part from three values emerging during childhood: hard work, education, and self-sufficiency. In addition, the interviews indicated the women moved from stage 5 of Kohlberg's model of moral development, where the belief is that justice can be negotiated in accepted social systems, to a belief that this may not always the case, but if enough people continue to pursue justice through accepted means, then the systems will eventually change. Implications of these results for research into models of moral development, psychological contracts, and organizational justice are discussed.

The effect of an information ethics course on the students' information ethics values: a Kohlberg's CMD model's perspective

Students' information ethics values (IEVs) are critical and of radical importance in achieving the above title's goal. Based on the Mason four issues of information ethics which are privacy, accessibility, intellectual property, and accuracy, (PAPA), the present study utilises Kohlberg's cognitive moral development (CMD) model to measure the improvement in the students' IEVs through an information ethics course (IEC). Therefore, this paper uses the ethical reasoning of 655 students, to recognise the power of a scenario-based survey. Meanwhile, this study employed non-parametric analytical methods to test the outcome of two groups of students that have/not have IEC training being two independent groups. This study finds that while the course improves students' 'privacy', 'accuracy' and 'intellectual property' values, however, it decreases their 'respect rules' and 'accessibility' values. Moreover, these results are analysed from learning theories (models) and from a Confucian ethics perspective (CEP). In light of these results, educators should take account of such improvements when designing effective teaching methods, and incentives, whilst considering the CEP.

The effect of an information ethics course on the students' information ethics values: a Kohlberg's CMD model's perspective

The effect of an information ethics course on the students' information ethics values: a Kohlberg's CMD model's perspective

Ethical judgment in business: culture and differential perceptions of justice among Italians and Germans

This study focuses on the cultural context of ethical decision making by considering the relationship between power distance and ethical judgment. Specifically, we propose that this relationship exists because of the influence of peers on ethical judgment and perceptions of justice. Considering the importance of peers in stage three of Kohlberg's model of moral development, we argue that peers are the basis for social comparisons, social cues and social identification and, hence, are critical to an individual's beliefs about justice. Using scenarios developed by Reidenbach and Robin, data were collected from German and Italian graduate business students. Germany and Italy differ substantially in power distance, but not in the three other cultural dimensions of Hofstede. Results show that the ethical assessment of the respondents from the two countries differs when justice criteria are used. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.

Post‐conventional Political Cultures via Processes of Direct Democracy: Theoretical Considerations Based on Jürgen Habermas and Lawrence Kohlberg

AbstractIn this article, it is proposed to differentiate political cultures in two dimensions. First, inspired by Habermas' distinction of the contents of discourse, a distinction is suggested between moral, ethical‐political and pragmatic elements of political culture as well as of an element of culture of balancing interests. Second, inspired by Kohlberg's stage models for the development of the individual moral consciousness and for moral culture, a distinction is similarly suggested between two pre‐conventional, two conventional and two post‐conventional collective stages of political culture. It can be shown that from a normative point of view, only deliberations made in a post‐conventional political culture can produce reasonable or at least fair results. Conceptual considerations indicate processes of direct democracy as the method for promoting post‐conventional political cultures. The more liberty that the citizens have to formulate and trigger processes of direct democracy, the more one can expect from them to generate post‐conventional political cultures.

Culture and the quest for universal principles in moral reasoning

The importance of including cultural perspectives in the study of human cognition has become apparent in recent decades, and the domain of moral reasoning is no exception. The present review focuses on moral cognition, beginning with Kohlberg's model of moral development which relies heavily on people's justifications for their judgments and then shifting to more recent theories that rely on rapid, intuitive judgments and see justifications as more or less irrelevant to moral cognition. Despite this dramatic shift, analyses of culture and moral decision-making have largely been framed as a quest for and test of universal principles of moral judgment. In this review, we discuss challenges that remain in trying to understand crosscultural variability in moral values and the processes that underlie moral cognition. We suggest that the universalist framework may lead to an underestimation of the role of culture in moral reasoning. Although the field has made great strides in incorporating more and more cultural perspectives in order to understand moral cognition, theories of moral reasoning still do not allow for substantial variation in how people might conceptualize the domain of the moral. The processes that underlie moral cognition may not be a human universal in any simple sense, because moral systems may play different roles in different cultures. We end our review with a discussion of work that remains to be done to understand cultural variation in the moral domain.

Towards a new paradigm of moral personhood

Moral psychology is between paradigms. Kohlberg's model of moral rationality has proved inadequate in explaining action; yet its augmentation—moral personality—awaits empirical embodiment. This article addresses some critical issues in developing a comprehensive empirical paradigm of moral personhood. Is a first‐person or a third‐person definition of moral behaviour more appropriate? Is operative moral judgement better understood as deliberative or intuitive? What is the essential nature of the moral self? Two basic constructs of moral personality which have been posited to help span the judgement–action gap—moral centrality and integrity—are critically reviewed and some criteria are proffered for evaluating competing models of moral personhood. Significant directions for future research are noted with the hope of moving the field towards a new paradigm of moral personhood. While the content of this paradigm will differ markedly from Kohlberg's, we contend that the spirit of his enterprise will be manifest with vigour redoubled.

Moral Judgment and Conduct Disorder Intensity in Adolescents Involved in Delinquency: Matching Controls by School Grade

Most studies that have found associations between delinquency and moral judgment generally compare incarcerated juveniles with adolescents in normal schooling. However, this comparison is subject to two criticisms. First, a large number of adolescents in school who are not charged with any crime in the legal system are still involved in unlawful behaviour. Second, adolescents involved with delinquency often have difficulties at school. The aim of the present study was to measure this association by matching a sample of adolescents involved with delinquency (n=18, M age=15.8, SD=1.1) to adolescents not involved in delinquency (n=42, M age=15.8, SD=0.8) according to their school grade and Conduct Disorder Intensity as measured by a self-report index using DSM-IV diagnostic criteria. Participants who met four or more criteria were assigned to the High Conduct Disorder group (n=28), and the rest were assigned to the Low Conduct Disorder group (n=32). Their level of moral judgment was evaluated with the French version of the Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Form by Gibbs, Basinger, and Fuller, inspired by Kohlberg's model of moral development. Findings demonstrate that in both samples, adolescents in the High Conduct Disorder group presented moral judgment that was significantly less mature than that of adolescents in the Low Conduct Disorder group. However, the majority of participants in the Low Conduct Disorder group also scored low on the Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Form, suggesting more immature moral judgment. The bias introduced by the mode of recruitment in most comparisons of adolescents involved with delinquency to adolescents with no delinquency problems is discussed, and an argument is made for the importance of analysing moral judgment development within a framework of general cognitive development.

Predictors of Moral Reasoning: Components of Executive Functioning and Aspects of Religiosity

The aim of the current study was to determine whether components of executive functioning and two diverging aspects of religiosity (scriptural literalism and quest) are significant predictors of postconventional moral reasoning. An additional goal of the study was to determine whether components of executive functioning moderate the relationship between religiosity and postconventional moral reasoning. Postconventional moral reasoning was assessed using the Defining Issues Test, Version 2 (DIT2), which is primarily based on Lawrence Kohlberg's model. Results indicated that components of executive functioning, along with quest, were significant predictors of postconventional moral reasoning and were significantly correlated with each other. In addition, analyses demonstrated that the relationship between quest and postconventional moral reasoning was moderated by performance on the Comprehension subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 3rd ed. (WAIS‐III), a measure assessing social awareness and general reasoning.

Explanatory limitations of cognitive-developmental approaches to morality.

In response to Gibbs' defense of neo-Kohlbergian models of morality, the authors question whether revisions in Kohlberg's model constitute a coherent refinement of the cognitive-developmental approach. The authors argue that neo-Kohlbergian measures of moral development assess an aspect of morality (the most sophisticated forms of moral reasoning available to people) that plays a relatively minor role in determining the moral judgments and behavioral decisions people make in their everyday lives. Attempts to conceptualize stages as schema and to redefine moral decision-making in terms of automaticity will not solve these problems. Flexibility is an important aspect of moral maturity. Observed relations between stages of moral development and various forms of social conduct do not establish that the structures of moral reasoning that define stages of moral development exert a significant causal impact on moral behavior. Although cognitive-developmental approaches are equipped to account for some aspects of morality, a more general framework that organizes the insights from other theoretical approaches is needed.

Should Kohlberg's cognitive developmental approach to morality be replaced with a more pragmatic approach? Comment on Krebs and Denton (2005).

Krebs and Denton (2005) proposed that Kohlberg's cognitive developmental approach to morality be replaced by a pragmatic approach more relevant to everyday social behavior and the cooperative moral orders of society. Although the Krebs and Denton article raises some legitimate questions, their proposal is at best premature and provokes some serious concerns. Their starting point, that Kohlberg's model of morality is inadequate, is an evaluation shared by many neo-Kohlbergians. Before the cognitive developmental approach is replaced, however, important contributions (e.g., Rest's schema interpretation of the stages) toward refining or improving the approach must be adequately considered. Evidence suggests that Krebs and Denton may have underestimated relations between moral judgment stages and social behavior, including sudden behavior in emergency situations.

Crime and punishment in the marketplace

PurposeTo develop theoretical frameworks to discuss high profile scandals, where responsible accountants and other executives could have saved themselves, many investors and others severe personal and financial loss by considering the costs of improper or immoral behavior. These cases emphasize the importance of ethics driving accountants' decisions.Design/methodology/approachThe paper discusses these ethical lapses in light of applying Kohlberg's models, biblical examples from the Old and New Testaments and the Koran, and other ethical systems.FindingsThe paper shows that this concept is not new. Throughout history, people have taken actions that cost them their freedom, their money and most importantly, their good names. Upon reflection, many of these people are astounded at the seriousness of their action given what little they had to gain from continued involvement. In reinforcing lessons that should be learned from cases of business malfeasance and highlighting many well‐known accounting and other scandals, we develop recurrent themes in the nature of business scandals and show that many people are responsible for or complicit in the malfeasance. These individuals could have prevented the fraud or minimized any adverse impact if they had considered their behavior ex ante. We show that the employees portrayed demonstrated very low‐levels of ethical development and seemed to underestimate the probability of getting caught and the resulting punishment. We also elicit many reasons from several viewpoints for not becoming involved in fraud.Research limitations/implicationsIt is hoped that the next generation of business leaders and middle level staff alike will consider the results/messages of this paper when faced with ethical dilemmas.Practical implicationsThe paper concludes that the best internal control in a business structure remains the hiring and training of morally upstanding employees and managers who recognize the values of their good names before temptations arise. Incentive plans can encourage ethical behavior.Originality/valuePractitioners must consider fully the potential consequences of their actions no matter how small the perceived probability of a bad outcome.

Toward a More Pragmatic Approach to Morality: A Critical Evaluation of Kohlberg's Model.

In this article, the authors evaluate L. Kohlberg's (1984) cognitive- developmental approach to morality, find it wanting, and introduce a more pragmatic approach. They review research designed to evaluate Kohlberg's model, describe how they revised the model to accommodate discrepant findings, and explain why they concluded that it is poorly equipped to account for the ways in which people make moral decisions in their everyday lives. The authors outline in 11 propositions a framework for a new approach that is more attentive to the purposes that people use morality to achieve. People make moral judgments and engage in moral behaviors to induce themselves and others to uphold systems of cooperative exchange that help them achieve their goals and advance their interests.

Ethical dilemmas of relationship building in china

AbstractWe analyze and discuss some ethical dilemmas of doing business on the Chinese Mainland, referring to detailed accounts of the gift‐giving and contract‐getting experiences of two overseas Chinese managers in dealings with Mainland Chinese managers in the sporting and leisure industries. We compare these cases with accounts of transactions in worldwide ship repair, and with a newspaper report of a sport‐related case in Hong Kong. Using a version of Kohlberg's moral‐stages model, and identifying key differences between guanxi and rational‐legal ethics, we explain how guanxi can become entangled with corruption in China. We link our explanations to the absence of rational‐legal moral governance, and to the sociological phenomena of anomie and relative deprivation. We conclude with suggestions about the conduct of China business. � 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The evolution of moral dispositions in the human species.

Kohlberg's model of moral development is viewed from the perspective of evolutionary biology. Moral judgments defining Kohlberg's stages of moral development are seen as manifestations of structures evolved to uphold systems of cooperation. Game theory research on adaptive strategies of cooperation supports the conclusion that humans inherit dispositions to uphold the systems of cooperation implicit in the first three stages in Kohlberg's sequence, but not the systems of cooperation implicit in the highest stages. The empirical evidence on real-life morality is more consistent with a biological model of ontogenesis than is the model espoused by Kohlbergians. Although people occasionally make moral judgments in their everyday lives to reveal their solutions to moral dilemmas, as Kohlberg's model assumes, they more often make moral decisions that advance their adaptive interests.

Studying Moral Ethos Using an Adapted Kohlbergian Model

Alasdair MacIntyre's (1988) analysis of moral philosophy shows that liberal individualism, the dominant contemporary tradition, has failed to secure consensus on ethical principles. It follows that Kohlberg's stages model of socio-moral development, which proposes universal morality, lacks universal foundations. There are further pitfalls when applying the model to organizational moral ethos (OME). I argue that these problems can be circumvented, and I reformulate the Kohlberg model, building it into a framework for analyzing five interrelated sub-systems of organizational moral ethos. These are: approach to formal moral governance; basis of moral authority; deep implicit socialization; morality behind normative structure; and corporate outlook towards social responsibility. I present 19 propositions based on the core idea that in liberal individualist societies, postconventionally orientated OME would lead to a reduction in ethical dysfunctions such as bribery, discrimination, employee exploitation, dangerous products, and environmental damage. I conclude with six further questions to consider in OME research.

The Role of Compassion in Moral Education

We propose compassion as a new model for moral education. The insufficiency of Kohlberg's cognitive model for such education is shown, as is the absence of compassion in dialogical ethics. We review briefly some authors who have treated the theme of compassion and propose the development of empathy as a foundation for educating for compassion. Specifically, we propose emotional guidance and observation-based tasks. Socio-affective experiences, the acquisition of social skills and the awakening of moral awareness are resources which enable the development of empathy. To put oneself in someone else's place, feel for them, sympathize with them, is not merely the result of an exclusive intellectual exercise; rather it is linked to a moral sensibility. A moral engagement, a moral stance in the face of tragedy, requires compassion for the commitment to be effective. To educate in compassion is to educate for a moral life.

Effects of Gender Constancy and Figure's Height and Sex on Young Children's Gender-Typed Attributions

Young children's attributions of gender-typed activities to figures/models differing in height and/or sex were examined over three experiments. The influence of gender constancy understanding on children's gender-typed attributions was also examined. In Experiment 1, young children attributed significantly more masculine activities to male than female figures and significantly more feminine activities to female than male figures. Experiment 2 confirmed the results demonstrated in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, additional line-drawn stimuli and figure comparisons were incorporated; participants attributed significantly more masculine activities to taller than shorter male figures and taller than shorter female figures. In addition, children attributed significantly more feminine activities to taller than shorter female figures. In Experiment 3, participants viewed pictures of taller and shorter male and female models. Results confirmed those of Experiment 1, as well as most of those of Experiment 2. No consistent patterns of children's gender-typed attributions as a function of gender constancy understanding emerged in the three experiments. Results are discussed as they apply to unexplored tenets from Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental model, as well as those of gender schema models, of early gender role development.

Desenvolvimento moral pró-social: Semelhanças e diferenças entre os modelos teóricos de Eisenberg e Kohlberg

O presente artigo consiste em uma revisão crítica da literatura na área do desenvolvimento moral pró-social. O modelo teórico do desenvolvimento pró-social de Eisenberg é apresentado e discutido em comparação com o modelo teórico de julgamento moral de Kohlberg. Esses modelos apresentam enfoques complementares no estudo da moralidade. Enquanto Kohlberg estudava o julgamento moral a partir de transgressão, Eisenberg investiga a moralidade em funções de ações pró-sociais como comportamentos de ajuda. Os fatores psicológicos que podem ser concebidos como determinantes da pró-sociabilidade são também apresentados e discutidos. Finalmente, a pesquisa recente crítica ou corroboradora de ambos os modelos é sumarizada.