Scientific Knowledge Base Research Articles

On the fundamental science of law and some of its directions

The article deals with the problems of science as a form of cognition of the surrounding world in terms of systematization of knowledge about the laws of nature, society, the state, thinking. The assumption is justified on the basis of scientific knowledge of the world in the initial phase of the emergence of human civilization: from the discovery of fire (science) and with the regulation of relations in each primitive social formation through education it practices and the consequent formation mechanism of interpersonal non-violent method of resolving disputes, quarrels and conflicts (socio-humanistic Sciences). When considering the problems of fundamental, search and applied science, the author notes that the organizational forms of science (academic, University, industry and – this is new – individual) are not “tied” to the types of research. Fundamental science, including the science of law, – is, in the author's opinion, a search in the field of obscurity, a problem of the over-horizon level. At the same time, there are those areas of fundamental science of law that arose from ancient times and continue to be relevant today, and they will be in the indefinite future. As an example of this trend, the author considers the problem of property rights in symbiosis with the problem of justice, in particular, asks the question: what subject of law in our country today owns natural resources by right of ownership? The author believes that the answer here should be based on constitutional provisions, but the current Constitution of the Russian Federation does not contain a direct fixing of this property, which leads to serious negative consequences, which is outlined in this work. The very constitutional basis for regulating these relations should be based on the principles of justice, and all subsequent legislation should comply with it.

The use of virtual three‐dimensional anatomy software in teaching ophthalmology

AbstractPurposeMedical education is changing at both the undergraduate and postgraduate level. There are less hours dedicated to the basic sciences, especially anatomy. These changes threaten to marginalise ophthalmology education, which relies heavily on basic science knowledge for clinical application. Technology‐enhanced learning (TEL) can assist in the efficient knowledge transfer of basic ophthalmic knowledge. Our study scoped the literature and evaluated the use of a three‐dimensional (3D) virtual anatomy software to learn clinical and surgically relevant ocular anatomy at the undergraduate level.MethodsA literature search was conducted of the following databases: Embase, Medline and Cochrane Library. A national, cross‐sectional study was conducted via webinar teaching with 36 undergraduate medical students. A 60‐min lesson was used to teach ocular anatomy using a blended learning approach with novel virtual anatomy software (BioDigital, USA) and a didactic Powerpoint (Microsoft, USA) lecture. Anatomical knowledge gain was measured using validated multiple‐choice questions and a surgical video quiz. Student perceptions using questionnaires were measured before and after the online teaching session.ResultsThe literature showed a paucity of studies validating 3D virtual anatomy software in ophthalmology education. Software identified in the search included BioDigital, Essential Anatomy, Complete Anatomy and Visible Body. A significant improvement in mean knowledge gain was observed for both clinical and surgical quizzes after the use of BioDigital (17.9%, p < 0.0001). Significant confidence gain with respect to ocular anatomy was observed after the blended teaching session (40%, p < 0.0001). 100% of students enjoyed and agreed that 3D virtual anatomy software is an effective method of teaching ocular anatomy. 70% stated they will integrate digital anatomy software with their future ophthalmology learning, and 60% agreed the software could replace traditional teaching methods.ConclusionsThe declining importance given to ophthalmology teaching sets the tone for ophthalmic knowledge amongst graduating doctors and specialist trainees. TEL using 3D virtual anatomy software is an innovative, time‐efficient and student‐friendly teaching adjunct for ocular anatomy.

Literature review: Anomaly detection approaches on digital business financial systems

Anomaly detection approaches have become critically important to enhance decision-making systems, especially regarding the process of risk reduction in the economic performance of an organisation and the consumer costs. Previous studies on anomaly detection have examined mainly abnormalities that translate into fraud, such as fraudulent credit card transactions or fraud in insurance systems. However, anomalies represent irregularities in system patterns data, which may arise from deviations, adulterations or inconsistencies. Further, its study encompasses not only fraud, but also any behavioural abnormalities that signal risks. This paper proposes a literature review of methods and techniques to detect anomalies on diverse financial systems using a five-step technique. In our proposed method, we created a classification framework using codes to systematize the main techniques and knowledge on the subject, in addition to identifying research opportunities. Furthermore, the statistical results show several research gaps, among which three main ones should be explored for developing this area: a common database, tests with different dimensional sizes of data and indicators of the detection models' effectiveness. Therefore, the proposed framework is pertinent to comprehending an existing scientific knowledge base and signals important gaps for a research agenda considering the topic of anomalies in financial systems.

Socially Responsible Management of Human Resources in SMEs during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Objective: The paper examines whether the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced SMEs to take socially responsible actions in their HR management.Research Design & Methods: The paper reviews the literature with regard to human resources management in SMEs and corporate social responsibility. Empirical research was carried out with a survey, with respondents filling out an online questionnaire. The research covered 241 small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) operating in south-eastern Poland.Findings: The main research problem was the analysis of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the continuation of socially responsible activities in HR management at SMEs. The first hypothesis – that there is a correlation between the application of social responsibility before the COVID-19 pandemic and the implementation of socially responsible human resources management activities during the pandemic – was verified. The second hypothesis – that the implementation of socially responsible activities does not depend on the location of SMEs – was not confirmed.Implications / Recommendations: The results of the research show that during the COVID-19 pandemic companies continued to combine employee performance assessments with CSR activities, rewarding socially responsible activities undertaken by employees, providing employees with favourable working conditions, and supporting them in training and professional development.Contribution: The research and analysis both enrich the current scientific knowledge base on social responsibility with data on the social commitment of employers to employees in a crisis situation.

Value Creation Framework and Roles for Smart Services

For several years now, the two megatrends of servitization and digitalization have had a major impact on business in manufacturing. Servitization means the addition of complementary services to products aiming for increased revenues, margins, and differentiation from competitors. Digitalization refers to the rapidly evolving information and communication technologies, enabling intelligent and interconnected products. The convergence of the two megatrends leads to so-called smart services; digital services that generate additional value from data of smart products. Smart services enable new promising business models going far beyond traditional services. Consequently, the value creation in manufacturing is shifting drastically. Manufacturing companies striving to offer smart services need to plan for their future value network (VN) and must define their position in it. However, this is not a trivial matter. Manufacturing companies must extend their often historically grown value creation with new mechanisms, such as processing machine data, and structures, such as digital platforms. Hence, the complexity of the underlying VN of a successful smart service business is far greater than traditional VNs in manufacturing. To tackle these challenges, our research aims for a design support for smart service VNs. The research follows the guiding principles of design science research, utilizes the design research methodology, and integrates a systematic literature review. This results in a framework giving a general understanding of smart service value creation. The framework is supplemented by 44 value creation roles for smart services, which help planning the VN and positioning of the focal company in it. Hence, we empower managers to design their companies’ future value creation for smart services. The framework and roles further extend the scientific knowledge base regarding the understanding of value creation through and with smart services.

Medical students’ metacognition and perceptions of learning behavior in problem based versus science-based curriculum

Background: This study explores metacognitive competencies of medical students and provides insight into student’s perceptions on self-regulated and co-regulated learning preferences depending on curriculum type. Once in Germany universities medical students are taught either a problem-based curriculum (PBC) or the classical science based curriculum (SBC), this study evaluates the impact of these two teaching methods on students’ learning behavior. Methods: Semi-structured interviews with 28 medical students were performed. Data collection and analysis were conducted iteratively, informed by principles of constructivist grounded theory. These study function as the basis to conceptualize a quantitative questionnaire. Results: Although learning strategies were similar, major differences between groups were the motivation in undergraduate level. PBC -students preferred early patient presentation in undergraduate courses which eases the acquisition of the underlying scientific knowledge base, further triggering the desire to learn beyond the regular curriculum. SBC -students learn primarily for exams using simple memorization, arguing that the tight curriculum and the amplitude of learning matter impede them to study beyond the necessary evil. Studying motivation in PBC is higher than in SBC students although the latter expressed their excitement to see patients when entering the postgraduate study level. Conclusions: PBC teaching style and working with patients already in undergraduate level motivates students in learning beyond the required minimum than in SBC. With increasing learning load students focus on exam preparations. The study findings suggest an educational model being learner driven, patient case-centered and preferably based on real time observations in order to better apply medical knowledge to the patient case at hand.

BRAIN TO MIND: MOVING FROM PHYSICAL TO CONCEPTUAL WORLD

The human mind is functionally evolved from the brain, which is composed of neural cells and nerve connections in the brain and the body, as the brain could control various functional organizations in the body, constituting multiple sensory-motor systems. The subcortical structures in the brain, mainly the amygdala and it’s adjacent systems produce emotional responses and also could initiate responses, whereas the prefrontal systems could cognitively process the inputs received, as well as conceptualized by the brain, think over and become aware of the thoughts created within, and also initiate responses, as well as actions. The emotional effects may directly affect the physical system, whereas one may first become aware of the thoughts created within unless one initiates responses or actions according to the thoughts created. The cognitive processes and the emotions created by the brain, and the accompanying awareness constitute the mind of the individual. The brain has been mentally understanding the scientific relations within the physical universe and has been using the knowledge of the scientific processes for creating new relationships over time and space, by which they could invent and create new functional systems for use in different spheres of life. The methods that were discovered through experiments by them have physical relationships, which needed understanding of the changes that occur across time and space, and it became a scientific process of understanding various physical and functional relationships in the universe. The scientific understanding formed the scientific knowledge basis, which could be used to form new physical and functional relationships across time and space, in the new physical systems created by them. Much earlier than this itself, there have been people who used their mental capabilities for self-creating and accepting spiritual powers as responsible for the creation and preservation of the universe. Many such spiritual forces were mentally created by human beings in different regions on the earth.

Innovation in Micro Firms Builders of Machine Tool? Effects of T-KIBS on technological and non-technological innovations

Purpose – This study aims to evaluate the effects of KIBS on innovation outcomes in micro firm builders of machine tools according to the categories of KIBS. Theoretical framework – This article not only contributes to the innovation process theory by reinforcing the arguments that micro firms can achieve innovations but also, that KIBS have a positive influence on technological and non-technological innovation in manufacturing firms. Design/methodology/approach – To achieve the objective of the study, the Mann-Whitney U Test was used as the analysis techniques. A survey was carried out to collect the data from 40 micro firm builders of machine tools located in the Basque Country (Spain) and Emilia-Romagna (Italy). Findings – The results suggest that KIBS have positive effects on innovations in manufacturing firms. However, there are differences according to the categories of KIBS. For instance, T-KIBS are prone towards technological innovation, while P-KIBS and C-KIBS affect non-technological innovation. In addition, ICT services also have a positive relationship with non-technological innovation. We conclude by highlighting the importance of T-KIBS to confront the challenges of Industry 4.0 and the need for further research to determine the role of KIBS in the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Research Practical & Social implications – Micro firms need to enhance their absorptive capacity by increasing ICT and R&D investments, to confront the challenges of the Industry 4.0, and given the fact that the industry is beginning to incorporate more and more codified science-based knowledge. Perhaps hiring T-KIBS would be an adequate decision for micro firms. Originality/value – This study contributes to the advancement of research involving different category of KIBS and their effects on manufacturing firms’ innovation, especially in micro firm builders of machine tool. Keywords – KIBS, Technological innovation, Non-technological innovation, Micro firms, Machine Tool.

ЗМІСТ І ПЕРЕДУМОВИ ВПРОВАДЖЕННЯ КОМПЛЕКСНОЇ СЕКСУАЛЬНОЇ ОСВІТИ В УКРАЇНІ

The need for science-based knowledge about sexual life is natural for children and youth all over the world. Official statistics on the incidence of sexually transmitted infections, gender-based violence, and early pregnancies emphasize the urgency of the problem of developing sexual competence for Ukrainian children and youth. The purpose of the article is to study the foreign and Ukrainian experience of sexual education at school, to understand the essence of the concept of comprehensive sexuality education, its actors, and the requirements for their training. The main research method was document analysis. The results of a review of approaches to developing the researched problem in foreign and national scientific publications and a comparative analysis of Ukrainian, some foreign and international standards (guidelines, recommendations) regarding sexual education are highlighted. It was found that today there is no unity in terminology, interpretation, and criteria for defining sexual education. There are national differences in approaches to understanding its goals and content. Sexual education is interpreted in a narrow and broad sense, but in this matter, scientists are gradually more and more inclined to use a complex approach. A broad interpretation of sexuality education shifts the traditional emphasis from the physiological and biological features of the sexes, the problems of sexual life, including the prevention of accidental pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and the achievement of safe sexual satisfaction (sex education, sexual health education) to the issues of forming a culture of sexuality and related feelings, understanding and protection of one's rights, including sexual, throughout life, humane treatment and responsible behavior in relationships, clear and respectful communication, preparation for marriage and family life (comprehensive sexual health education, comprehensive sexuality education). Comprehensive sexuality education has strong support in the international discourse and is supported by a relatively robust evidence base. A comprehensive approach enables educators and policymakers to address not only the individual determinants of young people's sexual and reproductive health but also the social determinants of their health and well-being. Comprehensive sexuality education is not reduced to the activity or responsibility of an individual teacher. However, it is the result of the collective actions of all teachers in conditions of mutual support and exchange of experience in implementing sexual education programs. Health, biology, and physical education teachers considered critical in sexual education at school. At the same time, it is necessary to strengthen teachers' ability in sexuality education by improving the qualifications of teachers and providing constant support. The document analysis proved the inadequacy of the development and practical solution of the introduction of comprehensive sexuality education in Ukrainian schools. At the same time, the European and American experience of a number of foreign and international standards, guidelines, and technical documents, which relate to the content and results of sexuality education for students, the quality of the application of education standards, and professional training of teachers, shows a reasonably stable conviction that comprehensive sexuality education contributes to children and society as a whole.

Community participation in coastal and marine research and monitoring in Inuit Nunangat: a scoping literature review

In Canada, the participation of Indigenous communities in research and monitoring is growing in response to calls for partnerships and heightened interest in bridging Indigenous and Western science-based knowledge. Yet, as settler scholars, we have noted inconsistencies in the articulation and operationalization of community participation in peer-reviewed literature. We conducted a scoping review of community participation in coastal and marine research and monitoring across Inuit Nunangat. This resulted in 72 studies, most of which were undertaken in Nunavut. Fourteen terms were used to articulate community participation, the most common being: participate, collaborate, community-based, consult, or variations of these terms. Among the studies that used community participation terms, we found that authors only defined terms 10% of the time. Community participation was operationalized primarily through interviews, mapping, and field observations. We assessed studies across a spectrum of community participation levels and found that most studies (81%) reflected minimal levels of participation (i.e., consultative, contractual, and less than contractual). Our results highlight the need for clarity in language use, transparency in reporting research practices, and stronger efforts to support Indigenous leadership and decision-making authority, all of which must be defined on a community or project basis.

OBSTACLES OF IMPLEMENTING STRATEGIC PLANNING FROM SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ PERSPECTIVES IN KHARTOUM STATE

This study aimed at identifying the main obstacles that face the implementation of strategic planning from secondary school principals’ perspectives in Khartoum State. To meet the study purpose, the descriptive research method was used. The study population consists of all secondary school principals in Omdurman locality amount 220. Out of the study population, 110 principals were selected through a random sample technique. The data were collected using a designed a questionnaire by the researchers. To analyse the collected data, the researchers used the Chi2 test through the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS). The school principals face difficulties in analysing the points of strength, weakness opportunities, and threats of their schools as they lack the basic scientific foundations and knowledge of strategic planning. The school principals encounter difficulties and problems when they try introduce the strategic planning of their schools because they lack the basic required skills and competencies regarding the implementation of strategic planning processes. The study recommended that the principals’ skills should be developed to meet the strategic planning requirements. Besides, more attention needs to be given to the obstacles that hinder the implementation of strategic planning processes in the future studies

Factors Preventing Technical Colleges and Universities from Cultivating Foreign Language Talents

This article discusses about the cultivation of foreign language talents, through which it can be appreciated that the emphasis is to be laid on improving their comprehensive qualities. Only in this way can foreign language talents adapt to the needs of the market, integrate into the ranks of technical personnel in the field of engineering, and be warmly welcomed by employers or employing units. Nevertheless, in order to achieve this aim, three factors should be overcome to avoid the hindrance faced by technical colleges and universities from cultivating foreign language talents with comprehensive qualities. This article probes into the three negative factors: first, students are not fluent in their mother tongue; second, foreign language majors lack basic knowledge of science and technology so much so that they are not able to do well in such translation; third, they lack the ability to perform simultaneous interpretation Simultaneous interpreting. In regard to those factors, this article then provides several suggestions as countermeasures to those three negative factors, so as to cultivate talents that can satisfy the needs of the market.

RECYCLING BIOSOLIDS TO IMPROVE MARGINAL LANDS FOR BIOENERGY FEEDSTOCK PRODUCTION IN UKRAINE

Energy independence is one of the national priorities facing Ukraine today. Plant-based feedstocks have the potential to diversify Ukraine’s energy independence by decreasing dependence on petroleum-based energy, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, expanding renewable fuel industries and creating job opportunities. However, biofeedstock needs to be competitive on availability, performance, and price to produce, market, and produce fuels. We hypothesize that domestically produced feedstocks from sweet sorghum, using proactive recycling of nutrient-rich biosolids on vast areas of degraded and marginal lands, could be a win-win energy independence strategy in Ukraine. Our goal is to create for generating a steady-state source of biofeedstock and disseminate science-based knowledge and training to the clientele. Specific objectives are to: (1) establish research studies to evaluate growth and feedstock productivity, nutrient removal, and feedstock characteristics of sweet sorghum fertilized with biosolids on degraded and marginal lands in Rivne, Kherson, Dnipro, and Kyiv regions of Ukraine; and (2) determine the impact of biosolids and sweet sorghum on soil quality. Data collected on growth, feedstock production, feedstock characteristics, fuel potential, and high-value co-products (biochar) of sweet sorghum and soil quality will be evaluated by multivariate statistics. Input, output, and outreach data will be subject to techno-economic analyses to evaluate the economically viability, environmentally compatibility, and social acceptability of the project. Traditional and electronic outlet activities will be utilized to disseminate outcomes and outputs and to evaluate project impacts.

Can Immune Tolerance Be Re-established in Neuromyelitis Optica?

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system that primarily affects the optic nerves and spinal cord of patients, and in some instances their brainstem, diencephalon or cerebrum as spectrum disorders (NMOSD). Clinical and basic science knowledge of NMO has dramatically increased over the last two decades and it has changed the perception of the disease as being inevitably disabling or fatal. Nonetheless, there is still no cure for NMO and all the disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) are only partially effective. Furthermore, DMTs are not disease- or antigen-specific and alter all immune responses including those protective against infections and cancer and are often associated with significant adverse reactions. In this review, we discuss the pathogenic mechanisms of NMO as they pertain to its DMTs and immune tolerance. We also examine novel research therapeutic strategies focused on induction of antigen-specific immune tolerance by administrating tolerogenic immune-modifying nanoparticles (TIMP). Development and implementation of immune tolerance-based therapies in NMO is likely to be an important step toward improving the treatment outcomes of the disease. The antigen-specificity of these therapies will likely ameliorate the disease safely and effectively, and will also eliminate the clinical challenges associated with chronic immunosuppressive therapies.

Problematical aspects of using forensic expert conclusion on results of the forensic examination of electric shock accidents

The article is devoted to topical and at the same time debatable topic of using forensic expert conclusion based on forensic examination results of electric shock accidents.
 Evaluation and verification of forensic expert conclusion, as one of the sources of evidence obtained on the basis of scientific knowledge is a prerequisite for impartiality, objectivity and comprehensiveness of the investigation in criminal proceedings and court proceedings. Conclusion assessment and verification consists of the solution of two general groups of issues: 1) compliance with procedural rules and requirements while appointment, forensic examination and conclusion submission: procedural assessment; 2) correctness, scientific validity and reliability of research and the conclusion is a meaningful assessment.
 Difficulty of correctly assessing and verifying reliability and scientific validity of forensic expert conclusion by investigative bodies or the court is due to the fact that conclusion is an expert’s deduction made on the basis of specific expertise in a particular field of science and technology. Certainly, investigator or the court does not have such knowledge. Sometimes they cannot objectively assess and verify the conclusion content for correct choice of methodology, methods used and methods of problem solving. It is emphasized that solution of such issue by investigation or the court is especially difficult in default of proven methods, or when applying new types of examinations.
 The article presents some aspects of verification of the facts established in the conclusion, their consistency with other circumstances and evidence in the case. Emphasis is placed on the fact that it is often difficult to verify the facts established in while investigation of electric shock accidents, consistency of these facts with other evidence in the case, if forensic examination establishes such facts, or when examination establishes certain crime elements.
 The ways of solving some complex aspects of the substantive assessment of forensic expert conclusion by investigation or the court are identified; it is proposed to make certain changes in procedural legislation regarding the independent review of forensic expert conclusion.

A Scientometric Analysis and Overview of Research on Infrastructure Externalities

There is a growing level of concern regarding infrastructure externalities globally. However, most of the previous relevant reviews were undertaken manually and few of them covered all infrastructure systems. This study conducted a scientometric analysis and overview of the research on externalities of all infrastructure systems. The analysis results of 743 articles that were rigorously selected first showed the increasing trend of research interest in infrastructure externalities. Moreover, the results demonstrated productive and influential journals, scholars, and institutions, and their collaboration networks. Furthermore, research on the spillover effects of the infrastructure on economic growth, airport-related externalities, road transport-related externalities, and externalities of ecosystem services and energy systems were identified as the four main research domains. The evolution of the research is reflected in the focus change from economic aspects to environment aspects, from government governance to assessing and pricing by the market, and from airport to other infrastructure systems. Additionally, this study identified the scientific knowledge base supporting each research domain. Finally, this study pointed out research gaps and future research directions in the aspects of knowledge base, multi-dimensional evaluation, and multiple governance strategies. The results could cultivate deeper and more carefully focused research into this field in the academic community, and assist policymakers and practitioners in research planning and funding efforts.

On-farm experiences shape farmer knowledge, perceptions of pollinators, and management practices

Mitigating pollinator declines in agriculturally dominated landscapes to safeguard pollination services requires the involvement of farmers and their willingness to adopt pollinator-friendly management. However, farmer knowledge, perceptions, and actions to support on-farm pollinators and their alignment with science-based knowledge and recommendations are rarely evaluated. To close this knowledge gap, we interviewed 560 farmers from 11 countries around the world, cultivating at least one of four widely grown pollinator-dependent crops (apple, avocado, kiwifruit, oilseed rape). We particularly focused on non-bee crop pollinators which, despite being important pollinators of many crops, received less research attention than bees. We found that farmers perceived bees to be more important pollinators than other flower-visiting insects. However, around 75% of the farmers acknowledged that non-bees contributed to the pollination of their crops, seeing them as additional pollinators rather than substitutes for bees. Despite farmers rating their own observations as being most important in how they perceived the contribution of different crop pollinator taxa, their perception aligned closely with results from available scientific studies across crops and countries. Farmer perceptions were also linked with their pollinator management practices, e.g. farmers who used managed bees for crop pollination services (more than half the farmers) rated these managed bees as particularly important. Interestingly, their willingness to establish wildflower strips or manage hedgerows to enhance pollinator visitation was linked to their ecological knowledge of non-bees or to government subsidies. Farmers adapted practices to enhance pollination services depending on the crop, which indicates an understanding of differences in the pollination ecology of crops. Almost half of the farmers had changed on-farm pollination management in the past 10 years and farm practices differed greatly between countries. This suggests integrated crop pollination measures are being adapted by farmers to reach best pollinator management practices. Our findings highlight the importance of studying local knowledge as a key to co-design locally-adapted measures to facilitate pollinator-integrated food production as ecological intensification tools.

The Unknowable: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Metaphysics, by W. J. Mander

Reviewed by: The Unknowable: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Metaphysics by W. J. Mander Andrew Vincent (bio) The Unknowable: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Metaphysics, by W. J. Mander; pp. ix + 336. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2020, $80.00, £60.00. W. J. Mander's The Unknowable: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Metaphysics is a valuable text for scholars of Victorian thought, whether they work in philosophical, metaphysical, or scientific domains. The narrative motif is the concept of the unknowable. Droll quips aside, we do get to know a lot about the unknowable. The term, or cognates such as the unconditioned, clearly had an intricate provenance permeating many nineteenth-century debates. The unknowable is certainly not confined to the Victorian era. It both predates and postdates the nineteenth century. The rough structure of the book is divided into three broad schemes of thought which respond, in diverse ways, to the idea of the unknowable. The schemes are agnosticism, empiricism, and idealism. The themes through which the unknowable is commonly articulated are as follows: the ground of sensory experience, the intuited dimensions of space and time, the self and identity, causality, and the eternal ground of being and/or God. The period covered is approximately from the 1840s up to the turn of the century. These schemes are seen to constitute the rich history of overt or covert metaphysics in Victorian Britain. The figure who initially advanced the idea of the unknowable was Sir William Hamilton. Hamilton is probably best known today via the harsh critique in John Stuart Mill's An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy (1865). However, in the 1840s he was a respected figure who, in Mander's words, "energized metaphysical writing in Britain" (11). The unknowable, or what Hamilton referred to as the unconditioned, derived largely from Immaneul Kant. The basic claim is that we cannot pass beyond our own phenomenal understanding; we are governed by what Hamilton called the "law of the conditioned" and we need consequently to cultivate a "learned ignorance" (13). Hamilton was also an admirer of Thomas Reid's realism. Accordingly, objects do definitely exist, but we only know them in relational terms as we perceive them. This general point constitutes a theme of agnostic realism. Analogous themes are explored in the work of Henry Mansel, although Mansel read Kant much more comprehensively in German and was not enamored of Reid's realism. Consequently, he argued more stringently than Hamilton for the limitations of reason, especially about God or morality. Herbert Spencer was disdainful of Kantianism, unsympathetic to religion, committed to an evolutionary naturalism, and confident about the reach of the empirical sciences; nonetheless, he also formulated a gauche metaphysical theory of the unknowable. [End Page 590] Mind and all theorizing were premised on an unknowable ground. Thomas Huxley developed his early views via Hamilton and was an early admirer of Spencer's metaphysical First Principles (1862). Later, however, in advancing his own evolutionary views, Huxley moved away from Spencer. It was Huxley who first coined the term agnosticism. His unknowable became a preliminary to scientific advance. Under the expansive canopy of empiricism, Mander discusses Mill, Alexander Bain, George Croom Robertson, Shadworth Hodgson, William Clifford, G. H. Lewes, and Karl Pearson. It is impossible to deal with the sheer quantity of beguiling detail in these various studies. In effect, all of these thinkers emphasized that empirical science-based knowledge suffices and that we experience reality via the senses. As Mill memorably put it: matter becomes the permanent possibility of sensation. Empiricism is combined here with phenomenalism—namely, the argument that sensations constituting appearances always interpose between us and the world. While all such empiricists resisted the agnostics' unknowable, many were still prepared to acknowledge a realm that was not yet scientifically accessible. For Mander, the high-water mark of such empiricism was Pearson's popular Grammar of Science (1892). The third scheme concerns idealism in the work of James Ferrier, John Grote, James Hutchinson Stirling, John and Edward Caird, Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, Henry Jones, and finally Francis Herbert Bradley. Mander employs the term objective idealism (in the main) to describe this group. He identifies...

RECLAMO: Unlocking the potential of wastewater reuse for agricultural irrigation in Spain

Increasing water scarcity is encouraging the use of unconventional water resources. In recent years, the European Union has launched numerous initiatives to promote and facilitate water reuse for agricultural irrigation. Today, the use of reclaimed water for agriculture has become an alternative, reliable and safe source of water supply and an indispensable water planning tool, especially in the area of southern Europe. However, water reuse for irrigation is currently far below its potential. Numerous barriers prevent its development and call for a detailed analysis of the different aspects affecting reclaimed water reuse, through an integrated and multidisciplinary approach. A multidisciplinary research team from Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, consisting of agronomists, hydrologists, chemists and agricultural economists, will work on the RECLAMO Project (https://blogs.upm.es/reclamo/), with the aim of providing solutions and recommendations aimed at promoting the full development and use of reclaimed water for irrigation in areas of Spain with marked water stress. For this purpose, project activities will be developed in two selected case studies (the Segura Basin, leader in water reuse in Spain and the Guadiana Basin, with success stories, but low levels of water reuse) and organised according to five axes: 1) development of a comprehensive knowledge-base covering the regulatory, technical, socio-economic and environmental aspects of reclaimed water reuse in agriculture; 2) participatory development of future scenarios exploring possible strategies, barriers and opportunities, in relation to the expansion of the use of reclaimed water for irrigation; 3) impact analysis of the strategies identified at different scales (crop, farm, (sub-)basin), through the development of an integrated modelling platform (hydrologic-agronomic-economic models); 4) Development of a roadmap and policy recommendations to achieve the full development and use of reclaimed water reuse for irrigation; 5) Dissemination of knowledge and promotion of science-policy-society dialogue. To this end, RECLAMO will collaborate closely with experts and stakeholder groups that will play a key role in the project in co-creating the scenarios and modelling tools and validating the results. The project will also seek for synergies and complementarities with other similar projects and explore new ways of collaborating with companies and research groups that allow research to continue and expand beyond the spatial and temporal limits of the project. RECLAMO’s results will promote an integrated approach to the sustainable management of water resources in water-stressed areas, including reclaimed water management. The integrated modelling platform developed in the project will allow policy-makers and water users to benefit from an improved understanding of the interactions between the social, economic and environmental aspects of water systems, in the context of climate and socio-economic change that will lead to better informed decision-making to address future water challenges. In addition, RECLAMO is expected to contribute to raising awareness about the use of reclaimed water reuse in agriculture as a safe and sustainable practice and to improve its social acceptance by producing science-based knowledge that provide evidence on the benefits derived from its use.

Pakistan Ranks Third Globally With the Most Unvaccinated Children: Is the Impact of Parental Perception and Attitude on Immunization an Essential Contributing Factor to an Unsuccessful Vaccination Coverage?

IntroductionHaving the third-highest burden of child mortality and ranking third globally for the most under-vaccinated children, Pakistan contains 15% of its population under the age of five, which accounts for 50% of the mortality rate in this country. Every year, almost three million children miss out on an entire course of the most readily available vaccines, leaving them vulnerable to life-threatening diseases. The Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) was launched in 1978 to protect children from vaccine-preventable childhood diseases. It is the main program through which routine immunization is provided to the public. However, since its inception within Pakistan, it has encountered many problems, including a lack of parental awareness and education. Low literacy rate, socio-economic disparities, cultural and religious beliefs have made parents doubtful about vaccinations. This term is known as vaccine hesitancy. Belief in conspiracy theories has also led to reduced vaccination coverage in Pakistan.Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted on 300 parents with children under five, chosen from Karachi, Pakistan, through a convenience sampling technique. The data was collected via 300 self-administered or researcher administered questionnaires. Associations were evaluated using the chi-square test with the level of significance taken as p < 0.05 and Cramer's V to determine the strength of these associations. Data analysis was done using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0. Results Strong associations were found between parental knowledge of immunization, vaccines, and willingness to get their children immunized. Associations were greater and significant in parents with a higher level of education compared to lower. However, lack of knowledge about certain essential vaccines like Pentavalent, Pneumococcal, and IPV was an important aspect to consider. Also, it was noted that their inability to access these free vaccines was due to their own firm beliefs. It was also about the lack of awareness and facilities for a better and beneficial program. 22.3% of parents said that administering multiple vaccines at a time would be harmful to their child, and 21.7% believed it would cause the disease it's supposed to prevent. However, the majority of the parents said they would strongly recommend others to get vaccinated. In this study, religions included and investigated mostly encouraged vaccination to their relatives (p value= 0.079). Occupation and Monthly income had little to no effect on the immunization regime of young children. ConclusionAn impact of higher levels of education on the perceptions and attitudes of parents regarding the immunization of children was noted. Consequently, as religion, gender, occupation, and monthly income do not affect parents' perceptions regarding immunizations, the problem lies within their knowledge and understanding of basic medical science and easily communicable diseases. Oblivious to the consequences of contracting a lethal disease, it has developed a laid-back attitude amongst parents. Hence, awareness and education of parents regarding vaccine-preventable diseases by the healthcare system and the governing bodies can lead to a higher successful immunization rate.