Archaeological Knowledge Research Articles

Activating archaeology: Robert McCormick Adams and how the past can help solve the problems of today

Can we use the past to improve the present and plan better futures? What is the purpose of archaeological knowledge? To whom do we feel ourselves accountable? What can we learn from past episodes of archaeologists grappling with these same questions? In light of recent claims regarding the value of archaeology for solving the most pressing problems of our day, it is worth revisiting times in our own history when archaeologists were enlisted in attempts to instrumentalize the past to address contemporary concerns. The case of Robert McCormick Adams and his trailblazing full-coverage survey research in Iraq and Iran between 1956 and 1962 clearly demonstrates the possibilities and pitfalls of such efforts. Adams’s commentaries on this fieldwork—particularly the reflections on the purpose and impact of archaeological research it provoked—have consequential ramifications for our disciplinary practice now and going forward.

Archaeotourist: A Novel Tourist Type in Heritage Tourism

ABSTRACT Archaeological heritage is one of the oldest attractions that have played a significant role in the promotion of cultural/heritage tourism. Due to its particular demand, we can speak of a specific type of tourist focusing on archaeological areas: the concept of archaeotourist. This study aims to define the ‘archaeotourist’ as a specific type of tourist in cultural/heritage tourism, exploring the interplay between archaeological heritage, archaeological knowledge, expectations and experiences in archaeological destinations. An interview methodology was used to support our definitional approach, and the results will provide a new conceptual perspective and close a gap in the archaeotourism literature.

The exploitation of silver deposits in early medieval Europe: some documentary, economic and social problems

AbstractFocusing on Southern Europe, this article sheds light on the mining landscape of the early Middle Ages. Based on the current state of historical and archaeological knowledge, the article raises a number of questions that can be extended to other European regions. The documentary problem shows that the scarcity of sources is due to a less developed mining historiography of the early Middle Ages. The few references show that it was not a question of ignorance, nor of the terrain, nor of the potential, nor of the techniques, taking into account the work in Melle and in the Harz. The study of production from the angle of an economic problem forms the basis of a hypotheses for selective and centralized exploitation during the Carolingian period and of an unbridled mining boom from the early 11th century. Even with the current paucity of documentary evidence, it is reasonable to assume that early medieval societies did not choose to exploit all the resources available to them. Finally, there is the social question. Who was behind the work and trade in ingots? The model of elite dirigisme will be discussed and it will be suggested that the role of the elite be reduced in favour of other actors such as entrepreneurs. Finally, the article argues for the extension of archaeological research to production areas in order to date operations, establish reference systems for ores and read archaeological remains from a social perspective.

Crafting Digital Experiences: Embedding Human-Centred and Participatory Design into Archaeological Practice

As digital archaeology has grown as a field of practice, so has the number of digital resources developed for specialists and non-specialists alike. However, the creation of such outputs has not always been accompanied and informed by design theory and practices. Design – used in its broadest definition as a process of conceptual making - is an integral, if often implicit, part of archaeological practices and it is through design that we develop and share our work – from data collection and analysis to interpretation and dissemination – and engage with our stakeholders. Engaging with core design practices offers meaningful opportunities for generating new forms of archaeological knowledge production and sharing, as well as creating digitally mediated experiences that are not guided by our own assumptions about our stakeholders’ needs and can really affect people’s engagement with the past. In this paper, I investigate the benefits of embedding Human-Centred and Participatory Design into the archaeology and heritage sectors to create more critically engaged digital encounters with the past.

Традиційний археологічний малюнок : майбутній пережиток чи необхідність

This article explores the role of archaeological drawing (especially its traditional form) in the development of archaeological knowledge, while also illustrating the generalized process behind the cognitive and mental models of archaeological thought. Archaeological drawing, being subjective in its interpretative nature, serves as an important method of critical observation and analysis of archaeological objects and artifacts. The main discussion focuses on the necessity of preserving the «traditional» type of drawing in modern archaeology amid rapid digitalization. A comparison of how digital and traditional drawing are perceived allows for an understanding of the cognitive level of two seemingly similar, but in fact, different methods of archaeological recording. Digital drawing, despite its many advantages, such as speed of execution and the ability to easily process images, is not always able to provide as deep an interaction with archaeological artifacts. When using digital drawing, researchers often focus on the technical aspects of the work, which can distract them from critical analysis of the artifacts themselves. The nature of traditional archaeological drawing makes it an indispensable tool in research, as it fosters a high-quality interaction with artifacts. Visualizing findings through such drawing is a process that combines cognitive and sensory aspects of perception, leading to a deeper understanding of the object. In addition, traditional drawing remains a reliable pedagogical tool; helping new generations of archaeologists not only master technical skills but also develop critical thinking abilities. Overall, the decline in the use of the «traditional drawing» method, although not yet observed in Ukrainian archaeology, could eventually alter the perception of archaeological finds. The spread of digital recording methods creates a risk that archaeologists may lose important aspects of research that are tied to deep interaction with artifacts. However, digital technologies continue to integrate into modern science, promoting a faster pace of work and access to research results. Combining traditional and digital approaches allows, ensuring both speed and depth of analysis for more comprehensive results. In conclusion, while modern technologies continue to influence all aspects of science, including archaeology, traditional archaeological drawing remains an important tool. Its preservation and integration with new methods can contribute to the development of archaeological science, maintaining a balance between speed and accuracy, between the demands of modern science and the deep knowledge provided by the traditional approach. Key words: archaeological drawing, mental models, traditional drawing, digitalization, cognitive archaeology, archaeological knowledge.

Disseminating archaeological heritage knowledge for development in Africa with special reference to Zimbabwe

In recent years, culture has gained recognition as a vital element in sustainable development efforts, both globally through the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and in Africa through the African Union’s Vision 2063. However, there remains a significant gap between the scientific community and local communities in terms of understanding and benefiting from archaeological heritage resources. This article draws on a research project conducted in north-western Zimbabwe to explore strategies for effectively engaging communities and empowering them with archaeological knowledge that is traditionally confined to academic circles. In doing so, the discussion draws attention to the need for the adoption of more inclusive approaches to the utilisation of archaeological heritage knowledge for community and national development.

Current Themes in the Archaeology of East Africa

East Africa boasts one of the longest histories of humankind. From hominid origins to the present, people have roamed, interacted with one another, and influenced the environment in innumerable ways. To teach about the archaeology of East Africa is to engage with the deepest history of humankind, from Hominin evolution to historical archaeology and the archaeology of listening. Each topic has developed its own peculiar and complex analytical methodologies that require varied resources and degrees of intensity and investment in training and mentoring. This review discusses advances made over the past two decades in the research and dissemination of archaeological knowledge about East Africa. Beyond the major issues that stimulate scientific research and debates, what debates have been settled? Which emerging threats must East African archaeologists overcome to ensure a sustained practice of archaeology in the future?

Enhancing Archaeological Teaching Through Eye-Tracking: A Pilot Study on Eye Movement Modelling Examples and Teaching Artefact Analysis

AbstractVisual analysis of artefacts is fundamental to archaeological research. However, learning and teaching the methods of artefact analysis can be challenging, since it is cognitively demanding to observe and explain how visual processing works. This paper addresses this challenge and evaluates eye movement modelling examples, a newly adopted method for teaching visual analysis of artefacts. Educational materials containing recordings of eye movements of experts analysing artefacts have been shown to be beneficial to students. As a consequence, they may boost the accessibility of archaeological knowledge, both for in-class and remote education.

Prehistoric Rock Salt Mining and the mines of St. Thomas and Camp Verde in the Southwest of the USA

Prehistoric rock salt mining and its archaeological investigations allows many fascinating insights into prehistoric communities, not only on techniques of exploitation but also on supply and nourishment, the miner’s health statues, the whole world of organic items of a broad material culture and also the social status and circumstances of mining. Salt mummies, as other organics best preserved, range onto the most outstanding findings. Worldwide 7 ancient rock salt mines are known, some nearby the surface (Duzdaği-Chehrābād type), some up to several hundred meter underground (Hallein-Hallstatt type). The rock salt mines of the Southwest of the USA belong to the first type. Research done in the 1920ies enable an overview about our archaeological knowledge.

New evidence for Neolithic occupation in north-west Arabia: Standing Stone Circles on the Harrat ‘Uwayrid

Recent archaeological investigations in AlUla County have provided the first detailed chrono-cultural evidence for long-term Neolithic domestic occupation in this archaeologically unknown region of north-west Arabia. This paper presents the preliminary findings drawn from multi-scalar datasets collected through extensive aerial and ground surveys, and the excavations of ‘monumental’ architectural installations, named in this study as ‘Standing Stone Circles’. These structures were individual dwellings, constructed in concentrations of varying numbers with associated domestic installations, such as hearths. The Standing Stone Cicle sites presented in this paper demonstrate a scale of Neolithic occupation not previously recognized in Saudi Arabia. These structures provide evidence of ongoing occupation throughout the 6th and 5th millennia BCE, concurrent with a general florescence of human activity across north-west Arabia. The faunal remains indicate a mixed subsistence economy, dominated by domesticates but supplemented by wild species. Broader considerations of the Neolithic economy, and models of pastoralism and mobility, are made possible on the basis of this, and the associated assemblages of stone artefacts and small finds. The data provided in this article offers a general picture of the Neolithic period in AlUla, addressing the significant geographical and temporal gaps within the archaeological knowledge of north-west Arabia. The identification of diagnostic Late Neolithic Levantine projectile point types, in conjunction with architectural parallels with the Levant, provides further insight into the origins of neolithization in north-west Arabia.

The places where nothing happened

The Francoist violence and repression through the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the Francoist dictatorship (1939-1975) have left many voids that all add up to an unbalanced narrative between the victorious on Franco’s side and the defeated republicans. This is a narrative that builds on the material voids created in the places where presumably ‘nothing happened’ during the civil war and the dictatorship. Through concepts of transgression, like non-absence, ghosts and the abject, I explore the materiality and the material memory left at two sites in particular: the House of Horrors in Arévalo, and Little Russia in Belchite. It is a narrative about how absence and silence materialize as structures of violence and instruments of repression. I argue that to approach these materializations, a broader understanding of the archaeological assemblage and what is accepted conventionally as archaeological knowledge is needed.

From active learners to knowledge contributors: authentic assessment as a catalyst for students' epistemic agency

ABSTRACT This study examines how authentic assessment could nurture students’ epistemic agency: their sense of agency in using, evaluating and producing knowledge. Authentic assessment commonly emphasises ‘realism’ and ‘employability skills’. As important as these ideas are, this approach to authentic assessment neglects the key academic value of knowledge, a gap we address by adding epistemology into the conversation. Our qualitative case study explores an archaeology course whose authentic assessment design relied heavily on digital technologies. We empirically analyse students’ sense of epistemic agency after articulating the affordances of the course’s authentic assessment design. Our findings show that digitally-mediated authentic assessment promoted students’ relationship with knowledge in three ways. Students understood themselves as (i) active learners, (ii) active users of knowledge and (iii) epistemic agents who contributed to public archaeological knowledge. We reframe authentic assessment as a catalyst for students’ epistemic agency, enabling students to contribute to social good.

Deconstructing the Digital Infrastructures Supporting Archaeological Knowledge

The last 30 years have seen significant investments in the development of digital infrastructures to support archaeological practice. From field recording systems to national data archives, these have come to play an increasingly dominant role in the collection, management, and access to the data used in the creation of new archaeological knowledge. Although a lot of attention has been paid to the technical creation of such systems, much less is said about the wider political, cultural and social aspects of these infrastructures. Focusing on large-scale national or transnational data infrastructures, this paper seeks to lay the groundwork for such an inquiry by making the infrastructure the centre of analysis, rather than its technical aspects. The paper asks how infrastructures emerge, are sustained, become embedded in practice, and how they subsequently contextualise and influence the formation of archaeological knowledge. The underlying and frequently hidden complexities of infrastructures and their nature as always under development should make a critical understanding of their implementation and application, the opportunities they offer, the constraints they impose, and the perspectives they adopt, an important precursor to their knowledgeable use in practice.

New Archaeometallurgical Fingerprints of Copper and Slag from Early Iron Age Smelting Sites in Faynan and Timna

The copper deposits of Faynan and Timna have been exploited in two major economic cycles: a Chalcolithic – Early Bronze Age cycle, and a Late Bronze Age – Early Iron Age cycle. The present study focuses on the Late Bronze Age - Early Iron Age cycle of the two districts and analyses a relatively large sample of smelting remains from their main smelting sites (slag, raw copper, archaeological ores). The analytical results from lead isotope analysis (LIA; n = 145), copper isotope analysis (CIA; n = 49), chemical analysis (n = 52) and microstructural analysis (n = 5) are compared with the current geological and mining archaeological knowledge and confirm earlier results according to which in Faynan only the ore type DLS was smelted in this phase and in Timna almost exclusively the ore type Amir/Avrona. Based on the analytical data, multidimensional models of these two copper types are developed, which presumably come relatively close to the copper types marketed in reality. Our models are intended to serve as a basis for comparison in future provenance studies.

RADIOCARBON DATING OF ST. GEORGE’S ROTUNDA IN NITRIANSKA BLATNICA (SLOVAKIA): AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL COMMENT

ABSTRACTIn 2021, a series of radiocarbon dates for St. George’s Rotunda in Nitrianska Blatnica (Slovakia) was published. The samples were acquired during restoration work. Based on the analysis, the authors dated the rotunda to the period of around AD 820–887, with 86% of the probability distribution lying in the period before AD 863. The chronology is based on the combined radiocarbon date 1191 ± 10 BP, which was obtained from four samples of wood fragments found in the oldest mortar layer. However, the date proposed by the authors raises concerns. The conclusions were based on a selection of samples and modeling of radiocarbon dates but put less emphasis on the results of many years of broad archaeological research on the local settlement agglomeration as well as extant historical and archaeological knowledge. The present re-analysis of the early medieval mortar and plaster samples and simple modeling corroborates the alternative hypothesis, providing us with the date 1115 ± 13 BP (cal AD 892–988 2σ). The resulting probability range is consistent with current archaeological and historical knowledge. Consequently, contrary to former conclusions, the construction of the rotunda should be dated to the period between the end of the 9th century and the end of the 10th century.

Analysis of Greek prehistoric combat in full body armour based on physiological principles: A series of studies using thematic analysis, human experiments, and numerical simulations.

One of the oldest complete suits of European armour was discovered in 1960 near the village of Dendra, in Southern Greece, but it remained unknown whether this armour was suitable for extended use in battle or was purely ceremonial. This had limited our understanding of the ancient Greek-Late Bronze Age-warfare and its consequences that have underpinned the social transformations of prehistoric Europe and Eastern Mediterranean. In a series of archeo-physiological studies, merging knowledge in archaeology, history, human physiology, and numerical simulation, we provide supporting evidence that the Mycenaean armour found at Dendra was entirely compatible with use in extended combat, and we provide a free software enabling simulation of Late Bronze Age warfare. A group of special armed-forces personnel wearing a replica of the Dendra armour were able to complete an 11-hour simulated Late Bronze Age combat protocol that we developed from a series of studies based on the available evidence. Numerical simulation of the thermal exchanges in Late Bronze Age warfare extended this conclusion across different environmental conditions and fighting intensities. Our results support the notion that the Mycenaeans had such a powerful impact in Eastern Mediterranean at least partly as a result of their armour technology.

Capabilities and limitations of Pb, Sr and Fe isotopic analysis of iron-rich slags: a case study on the medieval port at Hoeke (Belgium).

In this work, an analytical approach was developed for Pb, Sr, and Fe isotopic analysis of archaeological samples recovered from an iron work site by using multi-collector inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). The sample types include slag, coal, clay and hammer scales, all obtained from an archaeological site at Hoeke (Belgium). Despite the wide concentration range of the target elements present in the samples and some sample manipulations necessarily performed outside of a clean laboratory facility, the analytical procedure yielded accurate and precise results for QA/QC standards while blank levels were negligible. Preliminary results concerning Pb, Sr and Fe isotope ratio variations in archaeological materials associated with iron working processes are provided. The samples revealed high variability in metal isotopic compositions, with the 208Pb/207Pb ratio ranging from 2.4261 to 2.4824, the 87Sr/86Sr ratio from 0.7100 to 0.7220, and δ 56Fe values from -0.34 to +0.08‰, which was tentatively attributed to the mixing of materials during the iron production process or variability within the source material. Also, contamination introduced by coal and furnace/hearth lining material could have contributed to the wide range of isotopic compositions observed. Because of the absence of information and data for primary ore samples to compare with, the provenance of the materials could not be established. The present study highlights the challenges in interpreting archaeological data, particularly in terms of the isotopic variability observed. It underscores the necessity of integrating analysis data with historical and archaeological knowledge. Further research, involving detailed analysis of these source materials combined with robust historical evidence, is essential to validate hypotheses concerning the origin of iron.

UNDER THE GOLDEN PAINT. ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA IN 1960S ITALIAN POPULAR CINEMA

Mytho-historical epic movies enjoyed a particular popularity in Italian popular cinema of the 1950–1960s, presenting a mix of themes and motifs from antiquity and the Bible. In this article, one such movie, “Io, Semiramide” (dir. P. Zelio, 1963) is singled out for analysis to demonstrate the reception of ancient Mesopotamia in this corpus. The visual language of these movies is based on the principles of European art of the 19th century. Therefore, the first part of the article is devoted to an overview of the formation of this specific system, and the role of the popularization of archaeological knowledge, archaeological illustration, museums, ornamental pattern books. This is followed by the in-depth analysis of “Io, Semiramide”. Its decorations are compared to previous and contemporary movies and their 19th century roots. The film builds up several typical spaces, with their set visual code and semantic aspects (throne room, temple, private quarters, etc.). Particular attention is paid to the role of statues and reliefs, many of which have an archaeological “provenance”, but are modified according to the dramaturgy. The general “Oriental” background of the movie is punctuated with motifs from classical antiquity (e.g. the deliberate comparison of a male body with the Parthenon sculptures or the situation of a conspiracy scene in a sort of “Roman thermae”). Finally, the role of one particular object (the so-called altar of Tukulti-Ninurta I) is examined in detail, as it is used, quite creatively, to accentuate the actions on the screen.

Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Landscape Archaeology of the Battlefield of Sadowa-Königgrätz

The article attempts to present current results of landscape archaeology concerning a military conflict between Prussia and Austria in the summer of 1866 near Hradec Králové (Sadowa/Königgrätz). The aim is to introduce the possibilities of analysing individual available sources using the methods of battlefield archaeology, which is a sub-discipline of post-medieval archaeology. The historical period in question is not only a regional issue. This topic is mainly important with regard to protection of constantly endangered war relics, whose number in East Bohemia has been increasing in the past decade. The knowledge acquired from systematic and rescue excavations conducted in various parts of battlefields in the territory of Hradec Králové region demands new analysis to be appropriately evaluated and interpreted. The primary processing and treatment of finds are equally important as their spatial information and a successful setting into the chronological frame of well-known historical events. Archaeological knowledge thus sheds a new light on these events. The paper presents basic research topics and methods, to which increased attention is currently being paid within the context of archaeological sites. All of them use a wider view of the 1866 historical landscape, which was not distinctly modified for the purpose of military operations, but on the contrary significantly influenced their course and sequence. In order to properly interpret the acquired spatial data, it is necessary to reconstruct this historical landscape and to define the form of various activities which took place there during the war.

Bacterial Endospores as an Additional Source of Archaeological Knowledge in the Analysis of a Burial Cemetery of the Tarnobrzeg Lusatian Culture in Dębina (SE Poland)

Archaeological studies need to use laboratory techniques, including analytical methods like Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, gas chromatography – mass spectrometry, and high-performance liquid chromatography, as well as genetic methods to resolve and verify scientific hypotheses. However, additional tools are still needed in the case of the cultural practicesand traditions of ancient societies. Archaeological examinations of cultural practices have made significant progress in recent years, but additional tools are still needed to fully understand the complexity and diversity of these practices. In this work, we demonstrate how the genotyping of soil bacteria that can produce endospores is a potentially additional method for discovering past funeral rituals in various human populations who used food during their ceremonies. Endospores were isolated from soil samples taken from inside earthenware cup and pot-type vessels from a burial ground identified with the Tarnobrzeg Lusatian culture (SE Poland). The detected species of spore-forming bacteria strains were mostly environmental (originating from soil and / or water). However, the presence of some of the taxa i.e. (Peanibacillus, Bacillus) may provide a valuable source of archaeological information. We found that a combination of molecular and microbiological analysis can support archaeological studies of burial grounds and – in particular – individual graves, especially when they are characterized by a complete lack of bones.