Kinesthetic Imagery Ability Research Articles

Sonification of Motor Imagery in the Basketball Jump Shot: Effect on Muscle Activity Amplitude

The purpose of this research was to study the effect of AudioVisual pattern on the muscle activity amplitude during mental imagery. For this purpose, 25 female students (20.73 ± 1.56 years old) engaged in mental imagery (internal, external, and kinesthetic) in three conditions: No pattern, Visual pattern, and AudioVisual pattern. The angular velocity of the elbow joint in the basketball jump shot skill was sonified and presented to the subjects as an auditory pattern. The results showed that the muscle activity amplitude in AudioVisual–kinesthetic and AudioVisual–internal (and not external) conditions is higher than for other conditions. Additionally, a positive correlation was observed between Visual–kinesthetic imagery ability and muscle activity amplitude in the AudioVisual pattern condition and in kinesthetic and internal imagery. In addition, the muscle activity amplitude of high and low Visual–kinesthetic imagery ability conditions were only different in the AudioVisual pattern. The superiority of the AudioVisual condition is most likely due to the auditory information presented in this research being closely related to the kinesthetic sense of movement.

Convergent validity and sex invariant factor structure of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 - Second version (MIQ-3S): Healthy, young adult reference data

Aligned with the approach that established the factor structure of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3), this study extended the two-factor structure of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire – Revised Second version (MIQ-RS). The extension involves assessment of both internal and external visual imagery abilities along with kinesthetic imagery ability. Participants (N = 396) completed the new Movement Imagery Questionnaire – 3 Second Version (MIQ-3S) along with the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire-2 (VMIQ-2) which measure the same three imagery abilities. Alpha coefficients and between scale Spearman correlations for internal, external, and kinesthetic abilities indicated items were internally consistent (α > 0.87) and established convergent validity (r > 0.69), respectively. MIQ-3S scale means ranged from 5.56 (SD = 1.10) to 5.98 (SD = 0.84), with no differences by sex. The three scales were not multicolinear as intra-scale correlations ranged from 0.47 to 0.61, supporting the three abilities were related, but separate constructs. A multi-trait multimethod confirmatory factor analysis (MTMM CFA), with sex invariance, was conducted to confirm the 3-factor structure of the MIQ-3S. Results from 396 healthy male (n = 200) and female (n = 196) adult college-aged students (M = 21.91, SD = 2.37) indicated a correlated-traits correlated-uniqueness model provided the best fit to the data (CFI = 0.99; SRMR = 0.05; RMSEA = 0.03), while displaying sex invariance. These findings provide baseline data on college-aged, healthy adult participants providing reference data to those investigating imagery abilities among injured populations and practitioners interested in tracking individuals in rehabilitation.

Imagery ability classification: Commentary on «Kinaesthetic imagery ability moderates the effect of an AO+MI intervention on golf putt performance: A pilot study» by McNeill et al. (2020)

McNeill et al. (2020) recently published a study that first aimed to assess the effect of a combination of motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) on golf putt performance and then to determine if the evolution of this performance could be moderated by participants’ kinesthetic imagery ability. To assess golfers’ MI ability, the authors used the third version of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire. Participants notably self-estimated their kinesthetic MI ability by using a Likert-type scale, with scores ranging from 1 “very difficult to feel” to 7 “very easy to feel”. Athletes were categorized as either “poor” or “good” kinesthetic imagers, with mean scores of 4.93 and 6.63, respectively, in the intervention groups. Although a similar categorization procedure had previously been used in the literature for “good imagers”, the mean scores for “poor” imagers were much higher than those noted in previous studies evaluating the effect of MI ability on motor accuracy. Moreover, the low number of participants in the intervention group (n = 22) meant that participants were considered “poor” imagers even though their mean scores corresponded to “quite easy to feel” kinesthetic images of movements. This could notably explain the lack of differences between “poor” and “good” imagers in terms of putting performance in the intervention group. Despite these methodological limitations, the results of McNeill et al.‘s study show promising evidence for the efficacy of an AO plus MI intervention in relation to putting performance and should lead to further investigations. We suggest that research in the area of motor imagery ability include larger samples to explore, in individuals with very low imagery ability scores, the effects of the combination of AO and MI on motor performance.

Translation, cultural adaptation, and validation of the Spanish version of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3)

ObjectiveThe goal of this study was to translate, culturally adapt, and validate the Spanish version of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 in order to assess an individual's external visual, internal, and kinesthetic imagery abilities. DesignProspective two-phase scale validation study. SubjectsOne-hundred and forty subjects (47 men and 93 women, mean age = 21.54 ± 2.127 years) were included in the study. MethodsA direct and indirect translation of the questionnaire was initially carried out and then the psychometric properties of the questionnaire were studied. ResultsThe confirmatory factor analysis showed a good model fit. The percentage of explained variance was 69.55. Good internal consistency was observed for the total score and for each subscale (internal visual = 0.849, external visual = 0.837 and kinesthetic = 0.857). The correlation with the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised was high and the test showed stability in a one-week period. Gender invariance was demonstrated. ConclusionsThe positive psychometric properties of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 in its Spanish version show that it can be used to measure imagery capabilities among a young and healthy population in both sexes.

Implicit learning of symmetry of human movement and gray matter density: Evidence against pure domain general and pure domain specific theories of implicit learning

Theories of the neural basis of implicit learning postulated that specific regions were responsible for specific structures (e.g., supra-finite state) regardless of domain (e.g., vision, movement); others assumed that implicit learning was the adaptation that occurred within neural regions dealing with each domain. We explored whether people could implicitly learn to detect symmetry in biological motion, and if so, based on voxel-based morphometry (VBM), whether the learning was associated with language-related regions involved with supra-finite state grammars (such as symmetry) or motor-related regions. To explore the relevance of motor-related regions, we investigated brain structural changes in athletes compared with non-athletes and the advantage of athletes in implicit learning of action symmetry. Further, we examined whether motor imagery ability could account for the role of motor-related regions in this learning. Participants passively observed and memorized a number of biological motion sequences instantiating a symmetry rule and then judged new sequences as grammatical or not. Behaviorally, the implicit acquisition of symmetry could extend to process biological motion. Athletes showed superior classification accuracy and kinesthetic imagery ability, and gave more familiarity attributions. VBM results showed that athletes exhibited greater gray matter density in the right cerebellum, as well as the left lingual gyrus, the left precuneus, the left calcarine gyrus, and the right thalamus. Correlation analysis showed that the cerebellar gray matter density was positively associated with classification accuracy, which was mediated by kinesthetic imagery ability. Moreover, gray matter density of the left inferior frontal cortex was also positively associated with classification accuracy, indicating the involvement of regions related to symmetry learning across domains. The study provides initial evidence that implicit learning involves both adaptation within brain regions responsible for the specific domain as well as brain regions processing the same structure across domains, at least in a case of supra-finite state grammars.

Kinaesthetic imagery ability moderates the effect of an AO+MI intervention on golf putt performance: A pilot study

BackgroundPrevious research has established that motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) independently enhance the performance and learning of motor skills. Recent studies have demonstrated that combining AO and MI (AO + MI) elicits increased activity in motor regions of the brain and enhances performance more than either AO or MI alone. Kinesthetic imagery (KI) ability refers to the ease with which one can sense their own body and imagine how a movement feels during a task (Malouin et al., 2007). KI ability may be of particular importance when engaging with AO + MI as the provision of an external visual stimulus through AO renders the visual component of MI redundant. ObjectiveThe current study aims to add to the emerging body of behavioural evidence demonstrating the performance benefits of AO + MI by exploring the effect of an AO + MI intervention on golf putting performance, as well as exploring the role that KI ability represents in AO + MI effectiveness. MethodRight-handed male golfers (N = 44) of varying skill level performed twenty 15-foot putts before and after a 3.5 min AO + MI intervention (AO + MI group; mean handicap = 7.5, SD = 4.3) or a similarly timed passive reading task (Control group; mean handicap = 11.5, SD = 5.4). Using the MIQ-3 questionnaire, participants in both experimental groups were classified according to kinesthetic imagery ability where: a mean score ≥6 were classified as good imagers. Performance accuracy was measured using mean radial error (MRE), precision was quantified via bivariate error (BVE) and putter kinematics were recorded by SAM Puttlab. ResultsResults from a series of ANCOVAs indicate that good kinesthetic imagers who received the AO + MI intervention were significantly more precise (BVRE) on the putting task than good kinesthetic imagers in the Control group (p = 0.041, d = 0.678). Good kinesthetic imagers in the intervention group also significantly outperformed good kinesthetic imagers in the control group on a measure of speed control (SD of error scores along the axis of progression) in golf putting (p = 0.041). ConclusionsOur results suggest that the presence of AO with MI increases the relevance of kinesthetic cues, that good kinesthetic imagers are able to utilise for subsequent performance benefits during the putting task. We discuss the increased importance of kinesthetic awareness/feel following the intervention as an explanation for such improvements in performance.

The Effects of Cognitive General Imagery Use on Decision Accuracy and Speed in Curling

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a 6-week CG imagery intervention on strategic decision-making in curling. A secondary purpose was to determine whether curlers’ imagery ability and CG imagery use would be improved. Eleven varsity curlers from a Canadian postsecondary institution engaged in weekly guided imagery sessions that were held at the curling club before their regularly scheduled team practices. Curlers’ response times on a computerized curling strategy assessment significantly improved from baseline to post-intervention (p < .05). In addition, their kinesthetic imagery ability, CG imagery use, and MG-M imagery use significantly increased (p < .05). These results suggest that when curlers are exposed to new scenarios, they learn to store, process, and retrieve relevant information quicker (Simon & Chase, 1973). From a practical standpoint, CG imagery training can improve curlers’ strategy performance, including their ability to use various strategies in game situations.

Sailing Video-Imagery: Impacts on Imagery Ability

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of a standardized mental practice tool incorporating principles of video, modeling, and traditional-imagery,on the imagery ability of competitive college sailors. A quasi-experimental method using a quantitative pre-test/post-test design was administered with a convenience sample of collegiate sailors recruited via the Internet. An integrated video-imagery intervention was compared with a traditional verbal intervention to measure each intervention’s impact on imagery ability. The Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire-2 (VMIQ-2) was used to assess external visual imagery, internal visual imagery, and kinesthetic imagery. Exposure to video-imagery resulted in significant improvement of external visual, internal visual, and kinesthetic imagery abilities. There was no significant difference between improvements from video-imagery versus traditional-imagery. Future studies should explore best combinations of imagery and observation techniques, and efficacious elements of each

Age-Related Differences in Motor Imagery: Working Memory as a Mediator

Background/Study Context: Although motor imagery is a well-established phenomenon in healthy younger adults, it seems necessary to determine if older adults are still able to accurately perform imagery tasks before investigating the application of motor imagery in rehabilitation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if there is a progressive decline in motor imagery performance with age. Furthermore, we wanted to verify whether the effects of age on motor imagery were due to (or mediated by) deficits of working memory. Methods: This study examined the key characteristics of the motor imagery ability in three groups of healthy older men and women (60–69, 70–79, and ≥80 years; mean age M = 73.8, SD = 8.3) and 40 younger subjects aged 20 to 30 years (M = 28.87, SD = 2.5). Imagery ability was measured using the Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ), the Controllability of Motor Imagery (CMI) test, and two different chronometry tests. To estimate the mediational effect of working memory on age differences in the imagery measures, we employed latent variable structural equation modeling (SEM). Results: The main findings indicated that motor imagery ability (generation, visual and kinesthetic imagery ability, controllability, and temporal organization) were better in young adults compared with older adults 70 years and older, but not in older adults 60 to 69 years of age. The analysis of the mediational effect of working memory on age differences in the motor imagery measures showed that the inclusion of working memory increased the amount of explained variance in the MIQ (ΔR 2 = .03), in the CMI test (ΔR 2 = .15), as well as in the mental chronometry tests (ΔR 2 = .16) Conclusion: Our findings suggest that there is potential for motor imagery to be compromised in the older age ranges, which may limit motor imagery as a rehabilitative strategy in older and in cognitively impaired individuals.

The Relationship between Imagery Ability and Imagery Use among Athletes

The present study aimed to provide a better understanding of the relationship between imagery ability and imagery use. Athletes completed the Movement Imagery Questionnaire—Revised Second Version, the Motivational Imagery Ability Measure for Sport, and the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that imagery ability explained 20 to 41% of the variance in the use of the functions of imagery. Visual and kinesthetic imagery ability predicted cognitive specific imagery use; motivational general-mastery and motivational general-arousal imagery ability predicted the use of the motivational general functions of imagery. To assess imagery ability multiple methods of assessment must be used.

Psychometric Properties of the Revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R)

The revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R: Hall & Martin, 1997) assesses visual and kinesthetic movement imagery abilities and has become a popular questionnaire in sport and exercise psychology research. The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the MIQ-R including internal consistency, stability, factor structure, and gender invariance. There were 325 male (n = 136) and female (n = 189) athletes/dancers who participated in the study. Gender-specific internal consistency coefficients ranged from .83 to .89 and the test-retest reliabilities over a one week period for the subscales were .80 for visual and .81 for kinesthetic imagery abilities. The best model fit from confirmatory factor analyses results was for a 2-factor structure with an interrelationship between the subscales. These results support the finding that visual and kinesthetic imagery abilities are separate but related constructs. An examination of invariance by gender indicated that the model fit females better than males.

Investigating the Relationship between Exercise Imagery, Leisure-Time Exercise Behavior, and Self-Efficacy

The present study investigated the relationship between imagery use, leisure-time exercise, and exercise self-efficacy within a diverse range of exercisers. One hundred and sixty-two participants (Mage = 23.84; SD = 7.09; 97 female, 65 male) completed the Exercise Imagery Inventory (EII; Giacobbi, Hausenblas, & Penfield, 2005), the Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire (Godin & Shepherd, 1985), and an exercise self-efficacy scale (Rodgers & Sullivan, 2001) directly following an exercise session. The EII was also modified to include two rating scales of visual and kinesthetic imagery ability. Separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses determined that appearance-health imagery significantly predicted exercise behavior and coping efficacy, and technique imagery significantly predicted task efficacy (all p < .001). Furthermore, exercisers’ abilities to create appearance-health images moderated the relationship between imagery frequency and leisure-time exercise, coping efficacy, and scheduling efficacy (all p < .05). These findings suggest that appearance-health and technique imagery may lead to an increase in exercise behavior and self-efficacy beliefs.

Concurrent validity and reliability of lower and upper alpha activities as measures of visual and kinesthetic imagery ability

The purpose of this study was to correlate lower and upper alpha power with the Revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ‐R; Hall & Martin, 1997) to determine the validity of electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings as measures of kinesthetic and visual imagery ability. EEG activity was recorded from 30 right‐handed‐volunteers. Results revealed that the internal consistency and the test‐retest reliability of both kinesthetic and visual subscales as measured by lower and upper alpha power were acceptable. Cortical activation was significantly correlated(p < .05) with MIQ‐R kinesthetic subscale at both the right and left parietal sites. Further, cortical activation was significantly correlated (p < .05) with MIQ‐R visual subscale at the right and left occipital and parietal regions. These results support previous research (Cremades, 2002) showing that both left and right hemispheres are activated during imagery processing. These findings suggest that EEG recordings at the occipital and parietal regions can be used to assess kinesthetic and/or visual imagery ability and that greater imagery ability is linked with cerebral cortical efficiency.

The Relationship between Imagery and Competitive Anxiety in Ballet Auditions

Aligned with competitive anxiety research in athletics, this study explored audition anxiety and the role of imagery in the anxiety-performance relationship among 131 female auditioning ballet dancers. A better understanding of how auditioning dancers experience anxiety and associated image content can help train dancers preparing for anxiety-provoking, high-stakes performances. The CSAI-2 assessing competitive state anxiety and confidence and the SIQ assessing the cognitive and motivational functions of imagery were slightly modified for administration in the audition context. The MIQ-R was used to assess movement imagery. All instrument subscales, with the exception of the CG-Strategies subscale of the SIQ, demonstrated adequate internal consistency. Ballet dancers’ scores were similar to those reported by aesthetic sport athletes. Obtaining a position with a dance company was used as a proxy for defining success. Successful dancers with prior audition success were more confident than those without prior success and unsuccessful dancers with, and without, prior success. As a group, successful dancers experienced less cognitive anxiety and more somatic anxiety than unsuccessful dancers. Although imagery ability and image content did not differentiate dancers by performance, confident dancers had higher kinesthetic imagery ability and used more mastery and less arousal imagery than less confident dancers. In contrast, cognitively and somatically anxious dancers used less mastery and more arousal imagery. The athletic paradigm appears to be an appropriate framework for studying performance-related anxiety among dancers. Dancers and practitioners are encouraged to focus on mastery images for increasing confidence and decreasing anxiety. Dancers with prior audition success may be incorporating theses experiences in generating arousal imagery shown to predicted somatic anxiety, anxiety that does not appear to be detrimental to performance when cognitive anxiety is controlled.

The relationship between competitive anxiety and imagery use

Imagery has been proposed to be an effective strategy for controlling levels of competitive anxiety, but little b known about how imagery functions to achieve this. This study explored the relationship between imagery use. imagery ability. competitive anxiety and performance. Fifty-seven Junior North American Roller Skating Championship competitors completed the revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory—2 (CSAI-2). Results from stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed visual imagery ability and motivational arousal imagery to be predictors of cognitive state anxiety. Visual imagery ability also predicted somatic state anxiety. while motivational mastery imagery was a predictor of self-confidence. With respect to the relationship between imagery use and imagery ability, high imagery ability was associated with higher imagery use. Finally, self-confidence and kinesthetic imagery ability scores correctly classified a majority of the subjects as medalists versus non-medalists. These results suggest that imagery can be used to help control competitive anxiety levels and enhance self-confidence.

Le développement de la capacité d’imagerie visuelle et kinesthésique chez l’enfant

This study was an investigation into the development of imagery ability in children. A total of 120 elementary aged school children were divided equally into three groups of 40 on the basis of age. The three age groups consisted of children aged 6-7 years, 8-9 years, and 10-11 years. All 120 children were administered Hall and Pongrac’s (1983) Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ) to elicit information on their visual and kinesthetic imagery ability for movements. The results indicated that as children progress through school there is an improvement in both visual and kinesthetic imagery ability. That is, children find it easier to image movements as they get older. A distinction is made between imagery skill and imagery ability and the study’s results are discussed with reference to this distinction. The possibility of physical education activities developing children’s imagery ability is put forward and discussion centers on the role that nature and nurture play in the development of imagery ability.