Kinds Of Gametes Research Articles

Maternal regulation of seed growth and patterning in flowering plants.

The plant haploid generation is specified late in higher plant development, and post-meiotic haploid plant cells divide mitotically to produce a haploid gametophyte, in which a subset of cells differentiates into the gametes. The immediate mother of the angiosperm seed is the female gametophyte, also called the embryo sac. In most flowering plants the embryo sac is comprised of two kinds of gametes (egg and central cell) and two kinds of subsidiary cells (antipodals and synergids) all of which descend from a single haploid spore produced by meiosis. The embryo sac develops within a specialized organ of the flower called the ovule, which supports and controls many steps in the development of both the embryo sac and the seed. Double fertilization of the central cell and egg cell by the two sperm cells of a pollen grain produce the endosperm and embryo of the seed, respectively. The endosperm and embryo develop under the influence of their precursor gametes and the surrounding tissues of the ovule and the gametophyte. The final size and pattern of the angiosperm seed then is the result of complex interactions across multiple tissues of three different generations (maternal sporophyte, maternal gametophyte, and the fertilization products) and three different ploidies (haploid gametophyte, diploid parental sporophyte and embryo, and triploid endosperm).

Evolution of Sexuality: Biology and Behavior

Sexual reproduction in animals and plants is far more prevalent than asexual reproduction, and there is no dearth of hypotheses attempting to explain why. Even bacteria and viruses, which reproduce by cloning, engage in promiscuous horizontal gene exchange (“parasexual reproduction”) on such short time scales that they evolve genotypic diversity even more rapidly than eukaryotes. (We confront this daily in the form of antimicrobial resistance.) The host-parasite and host-pathogen arms race purports to explain the prevalence of sexual reproduction, yet there are over a dozen other hypotheses, including the proposition that sexual reproduction purges the genome of deleterious mutations. An equally daunting challenge is to understand, in terms of evolutionary logic, the jungle of diverse courtship and mating strategies that we find in nature. The phenotypic plasticity of sex determination in animals suggests that the central nervous system and reproductive tract may not reach the same endpoint on the continuum between our stereotypic male and female extremes. Why are there only two kinds of gametes in most eukaryotes? Why are most flowering plants, and few animals, hermaphroditic? Why do male animals compete more for access to females than the other way around in most animals that have been studied? This review presents more questions than answers, but an extraordinary wealth of data has been collected, and new genetic techniques will provide new answers. The possible relevance of these data to human sexuality will be discussed in a future article.

Genetic Evidence of Elimination of Chromosomes in the Hessian Fly1,2

The characteristic difference in the physiological capacity of Races A and B of Mayetiola destructor (Say) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) to stunt ‘Monon’ wheat plants and to survive on the cultivar was used to obtain genetic evidence that paternally derived chromosomes are eliminated during spermatogenesis. Parents bred true; that is, matings of Race A produced progenies that were unable to live on or stunt Monon wheat plants, and matings of Race B produced progenies that could, but progenies of reciprocal matings between the races showed that the inability of Race A to stunt Monon wheat plants was dominant to the ability of Race B; also, the ability of the F1 hybrid progeny to survive on Monon wheat plants was intermediate between the inability of Race A and the ability of Race B. The phenotypes of the 2nd generation and the backcross progeny differed according to the heterozygosity and direction of cross of the F1 parents. Heterozygous females produced 2 kinds of gametes; homozygous females, homozygous males, and heterozygous males produced only 1 kind. The elimination of the paternally derived chromosomes was therefore demonstrated by the stunting of the wheat by progenies of the different matings and by larval survival and distribution of larval size.

STUDIES ON THE HYPOANEUPLOIDS OF COMMON WHEAT. I. DOUBLE MONOSOMICS AND TRIPLE MONOSOMICS

1. Eight kinds of double monosomics and five of triple monosomics were obtained by systematic procedures in a variety Chinese Spring of common wheat, Triticum aestivum ssp. vulgare.2. Double monosomics (19II+2I) were obtained by crossing two different nullisomics (20II). Triple monosomics (18II+3I) were produced by crossing these double monosomics to third nullisomics.3. Plants of the double monosomics were hardly distinguishable from normal disomic plants in size, vigor and fertility. The triple monosomics had high fertility necessary for selfing and crossing, though they showed in general reduced size, vigor and fertility.4. In progenies of the crosses, double monosomics (_??_)×nullisomics (_??_), plants with the least chromosome number in expectation, i.e. 2n=39, were obtained at the frequencies between 45 and 54 per cent. In the reciprocal cross, however, their frequency was only 4 per cent.5. Apparently the double monosomics produced three kinds of gametes with 19, 20 or 21 chromosomes. The above results demonstrate that the eggs with 19 chromosomes were more frequently fertilized than those with 20 or 21 chromosomes.6. For the maintenance of triple monosomic strains, crosses between triple monosomics (_??_) and normal plants (_??_) were made; F1's obtained had 39 to 42 chromosomes. The 39-chromosome plants appeared at a frequency of 25.5 per cent and showed the 18II+3I chromosome configuration at meiotic metaphase I, which indicated that they were triple monosomic.7. It was concluded from the results of the present investigation that the 18-chromosome female gametes produced from triple monosomics were functional in fertilization.

THE CREEPING VOLE (MICROTUS OREGONI) AS A GONOSOMIC MOSAIC. I. THE OY/XY CONSTITUTION OF THE MALE.

Both sexes of <i>Microtus oregoni</i> are gonosomic mosaics; the male with the OY/XY constitution, the female the XX/XO. The diploid chromosome number of 17 originally reported by Matthey (1956, 1958) holds true only for male germ cells (OY) and female somatic cells (XO). The male, which develops from an XY-zygote with 18 chromosomes, produces two kinds of gametes; one with the Y, the other with no sex element; the X has been eliminated from the spermatogonia. Thus in this species the sperm with no sex element at all is female-determining; the XO-zygote develops into a female lacking a paternal X-chromo-some.

MODIFICATION OF ABNORMAL GAMETIC RATIOS IN DROSOPHILA. I. EVIDENCE FOR AN INFLUENCE OF Y CHROMOSOMES AND MAJOR AUTOSOMES ON GAMETIC RATIOS FROM BAR-STONE TRANSLOCATION MALES

IF one considers the meiotic behavior of two pairs of non-homologous chromosomes, designating one pair A and A’ and the other pair B and B’, then it is expected that A will separate from A’ and B from B’ and that, following a random assortment of the two pairs of chromosomes, four gametic types (AB, A’B’, AB’ and A’B) will be produced with, under ordinary circumstances, equal frequency. NOVITSKI and I. SANDLER (1957) reported a case in Drosophila melanogaster in which they showed that, despite the absence of evidence for departures from regular separation and random assortment in their experiments, certain gametic types were, nonetheless, recovered appreciably more frequently than others. They studied the kinds of gametes produced by Drosophila males carrying the Bar translocation of STONE, T ( 1 ;4) Bs, where A or XD represents the large distal piece of a broken X chromosome attached to the centric piece of a broken fourth chromosome, and A’ or IV a normal fourth chromosome, and where B or Xp represents the proximal centric piece of the broken X chromosome, marked with the mutant Bar, and having the remaining acentric piece of the broken fourth chromosome attached to its free end, and B’ or Y a normal Y chromosome (Figure 1 ) . The relative frequencies of the four gametic types, XD + Xp, IV -F Y, XD + Y, and IV 4- Xp, observed in their experiments are given below in row I, and the relative rates of recovery of the members of each homologous pair of chromosomes are given in row 111.

Meiotic Drive as an Evolutionary Force

Instances are known both from studies of natural populations and laboratory experiments in which heterozygotes produce two kinds of gametes, not with the customary equality, but with unequal frequencies. Such meiotic behavior will profoundly affect gene frequencies in populations, and is referred to as meiotic drive. Some of the consequences of meiotic drive on the genetic structure of natural populations, including those of man, and its evolutionary implications are considered.

SEX DETERMINATION AND SEX BALANCE IN MELANDRIUM

CAPACITIES FOR male development or for female development are established at fertilization in those animals and higher plants with separate sexes and depend on the chromosome constitutions of the participating gametes. Among the mnammals and most dioecious plants (XX female; XY male) the female produces gametes of only one kind, those with an X chromosome; but the male produces two kinds of gametes, those with an X chromosome and those with a Y chromosome, in approximately equal numbers. Each zygote thus receives an X chromosome from the female parent; if it also receivesan X from the male parent it becomes female (XX), but if it receives a Y from the male parent it becomes male (XY). Chromosomes are likewise known to provide the differentiating mechanism in other types of sex inheritance: in the XO type (Orthoptera), where the female has two sex chromosomes (XX) and the male only one (XO), and among the birds and Lepidoptera, where the female commonly is heterogametic (XY or XO) and the male homogametic (XX). Sex chromosomes probably act in sex differentiation by so altering the proportion between male and female determiners that one sex or the other results. For example, in the XO type (male heterogametic) the autosomes must have a predominant male influence and the X chromosome a predominant female influence, these being so balanced that maleness results when the autosomes are opposed by a single X chromosome, but that femaleness results when they are opposed by two X chromosomes. In the XY types also there is a difference in the proportion of sex genes in the XX and XY individuals. In this case, however, it is not possible by inspection to say which chromosomes bear the respective male and female tendencies. Here males and females have the same number of chromosomes, and at least three possible distributions of the sex genesmust be distinguished:

XIV.—The Genetical and Mechanical Properties of the Sex Chromosome. VI. Hexacentrus mundus

Cytological studies carried out by McClung (1905, 1914) on various species of Orthoptera have shown that the male is the heterogametic sex. The male has only one X-chromosome, whereas the female has two. During spermatogenesis two kinds of gametes are produced, one with the X-chromosome and the other without it. It was also found that the segregation of the single sex chromosome takes place at first meiotic anaphase. The present paper describes the sex chromosome of the male Hexacentrus mundus Walker, from India. During the meiotic division this chromosome exhibits peculiarities which it is believed have not hitherto been seen in any species of the Orthopteræ.

XIV.—The Genetical and Mechanical Properties of Sex Chromosomes. III. Man

In the male chromosome complement of man, Painter (1923) found that one chromosome pair is heteromorphic and forms an asymmetrical or unequal bivalent during meiotic metaphase, and consequently two kinds of gametes are produced. One member of this heteromorphic pair is about three times longer than the other and is designated the X, the other is described as the Y chromosome. Though the sex chromosomes of man were carefully studied and identified with certainty throughout the nuclear cycle of mitosis and meiosis by several investigators (cf. Shiwago and Andres, 1932), no further attempt was made to correlate the peculiar pairing properties of the heteromorphic chromosomes with their qualitative and structural differentiation.

人血液型ノ遺傳學的研究

Generally in a group of individuals who have continuous fertilization from other families, the frequency of the gametes is regulated, as a matter of course, and consequently the frequency of zygotes is regulated throughout many generations, once the proportion of gametes has reached a certain point of equilibrium. But it is evident that so long as the frequency of gametes has not reached a state of equilibrium, changes take place according to the generation. It is appropriate, in my opinion, to consider that the frequency of the blood types in the gametes in the present generation is in a transition stage on the way toward a point of equilibrium.If my hypothesis is adopted, the frequency of the four kinds of gametes can be calculated by the following formulae. The respective frequency is represented by ab......R, Ab......P, aB......Q, AB......Z.R=√OZ=1-√O+a+B+AB+× 2n+2/2n+3P=1/2{√A+O-√O+1-(√B+O+1-√O+a+B+AB+× 2n+2/2n+3)}Q=1/2{√B+O-√O+1-(√B+O+1-√O+a+B+AB+× 2n+2/2n+3)}When the theoretical rate of distribution of the blood type of masses and the actual rate are compared by ealculating the frequency of the gametes after the priciple of each of the hypotheses above-mentioned, it can be seen that the numerical value obtained by my method fits the facts better than that obtained by other hypotheses. Moreover, when the frequency of each hereditary type is calculated from the frequency of the respective gametes, and the anticipated division among the children of the next generation is observed comparatively and statistically, entire agreement between the anticipated division and the actual fact can be found by my hypothesis and not by any other, in the case of coupling when the parents are of the O, A and B types. But in the case of coupling when the parents are of the AB type, 2 pair allelomorphism has, as shown in the following table, a qualitative agreement, but a marked quantitative disparity. If the hypothesis of 3-multiple allelomorphism is adopted, somewhat quantitative approximation can be shown, but the result is quite opposite qualitatively. When my hypothesis is adopted, however, complete harmony is recognized between theory and fact both quantitatively and qualitatively.

人血液型ノ遺傳學的研究

As a result of observation of the already known facts concerning bloods types, of personal investigation, and comprehensive study of other world-wide statistical investigations, it was seen that the inheritance of blood groups can be explained by the phenomenon of Linkage.The author's hypothesis is that there are three prototypes of blood and two pairs of coequal formative and qualitative factors, A……a; B……b, which occupy the conjugating position of the chromatic bodies that exercise a multifarious influence upon form and substance, corpuscle and serum. In other words, the structure of the factors in the three prototypes is ab/ab (O type), ab/Ab (A type), ab/aB (B type). From the free combination of the zygotes, there spring the three new zygotes, Ab/Ab (A type), aB/aB (B type), Ab/aB (AB type).Five kinds of zygotes which belong to the O, A, and B types do not appear in any result even if linkage takes place, and a gametes will be respectively divided into ab, Ab, aB, heredity thus continuing according to simple hereditary law.On the other hand, when the linkage of Ab/aB, belonging to the AB type, is followed, the kinds of the gametes and the numerical ratio which are derived from that formula will be by repulsion, the gamete AB being thus generated for the first time. The newly genrated AB gamete conjugates with the other kinds of gametes and generates the other four new kinds, ab/AB, Ab/AB, aB/AB, AB/AB. (all of which belong to the AB type). The ab/AB form among the last mentioned four kinds produces the subdivided kinds of gametes and the ratio, according to the coupling. Even if other kinds of zygotes are produced by linkage, they will not appear in the result, and will have only simple heredity.There are thus produced ten hereditary blood types which indicate the heredity in the mutual relation of coupling. The author calculated the frequency of the appearance of these ten types of heredity, from which twelve formulae were made in order to calculate the differentiation that might be anticipated in the next generation. When these formulae are thus employed, complete agreement is found qualitatively and quantitatively between the actual fact and the theoretical anticipation.

A case of linkage of sex-chromosomes with autosomes in the pollen mother cell of <i>Humulus japonicus</i>

In the present paper a case of linkage of sex-chromosomes with autosomes is described. The observations are made exclusively from pollen mother cells of an male plant of Humulus japonicus SIEB et ZUCC. which was cultivated in Hokkaido (Northern part of Japan). This male is pure in its sexual expression, but unusual as to the behavior of sex-chromosomes. The results are summed up as follows:(1) There is one pentapartite chromosome complex in the diakinesis beside 6 normal bivalents. From the comparison of this unusual male with normal males, it is clear that this pentapartite complex is formed as the result of the end to end union of the sex-chromosomes (Y1XY2) and an autosome pair(ss). This pair of autosomes is one of the smallest elements of 7 bibalents of the normal male.(2) The multiple chromosomes are united in the order Y1 ss XY2 (Fig. 1 and 2).(3) In the heterotypic metaphase we see W- or N- shaped arrangement of the pentapartite complex (Fig. 3 and 4). From the latter arrangement two kinds of gametes are expected, namely 6+s+s+Y2 and 6+X+Y1.Very often we see modifications owing to the separation of the linked elments. In Figs. 5 and 6 two cases are shown, in each of these the complex is divided in three parts Y1, ss and XY2. In this case we can expect four kinds of gametes, namely 6+s+X, 6+s+Y1+Y2, 6+s+Y1+X and 6+s+Y2. In Figs. 7 and 8 the complex is divided in two groups Y1 s and sXY2.Further we can clearly see an unequal pair sY1, and a large pair XY2 in Fig. 9, where one s-chromosome is cut off by the knife.(4) The second division is equational. We can see two kinds of the daughter plates, one with 8 chromosomes and the other with 9.(5) Fertility of pollen grains was not studied.(6) The validity of the new interpretation of WINGE (1929) on the sex-chromosomes ofH. japonicus, that 3X's determine the male while 2X's the female, is discussed.

Chromosome Studies in Some Dioecious Plants, with Special Reference to the Allosomes

1. The chromosomes of the male plants of 17 genera, 22 species and 2 varieties of dioecious phanerogams have been investigated. Of these the following 13 forms show each an unequal pair of chromosomes in addition to autosome pairs at the meiotic division in microsporocytes. This unequal pair of chromosomes is assumed to be a sex chromosome complex of an XY-type. Consequently in these forms the male plants are heterogametic with respect to sex. The 13 forms are Salix leucopithecia, S. sachalinensis, S. japonica, S. melanostachys, S. gracilistyla, S. viminalis var. yezonensis Morus bombycis, Cannabis sativa, Datisca cannabina, Daphniphyllum macropodum, Trichosanthes japonica, Hydrilla verlicillata and Trachycarpus excelsus.2. In Cudrania triloba, Acer negundo, Trachycarpus excelsus, var. Fortunei and Ginkgo biloba, one unequal pair-like pair is found at the first meiotic metaphase in microsporocytes; but it is not safe to take this for a true unequal pair of chromosomes until a further examination has been made.3. One large chromosome pair in Morus and Trachycarpus often divides in two unequal parts at the first meiotic division. The signifi-cance of this particular behaviour, especially in relation to sex determi-nation, is not yet known.4. Although many suitable figures of metaphase and anaphase of the first and second meiotic divisions in the male of Spinacia oleracea have been examined, no evidence of the existence of sex chromosomes has been obtained. An examination of the female has still to be undertaken.In microsporocytes of Aucuba japonica, 16 chromosomes are found at the first meiotic anaphase. The zygotic numbers of chromosomes in both sexes are the same, being 32. No evidence as to the sex chromo-somes could be obtained in the male plant.5. All Salix plants studied, except one form of S. sachalinensis, have 19 as the gametic chromosome number which is a basis in Salicaceae. The meiotic division is quite normal in them.One form of S. sachalinensis from Hokkaidoô has ca. 24 chromosomes at the first meiotic metaphase and their behaviour in the meiotic stages is irregular.6. Humulus japonicus, growing wild in the vicinity of Tokyo, has a tripartite chromosome in addition to 7 autosomic gemini at the first meiotic division in microsporocytes. At the first meiotic metaphase, the tripartite chromosome divides in such a way that the two end chromosomes go to the one pole, while the middle one goes to the other. Its behaviour is strikingly similar to that of Rumex acetosa. As a result, with respect to chromosomes, two kinds of pollen grains maybe formed. These results confirm that attained by KIHARA.7. Humulus lupulus has 10 gametic and 20 zygotic chromosomes. In the first meiotic division of microsporocytes, 16 chromosomes of the 20 form 8 gemini in all, while the 4 remaining chromosomes do not form gemini, but are connected end to end to form a beaded string. This tetrapartite chromosome can be identified in several stages from early diaphase, in the first meiotic division. At metaphase each alternate chromosome of the tetrapartite goes to opposite poles respectively. Thus the daughter nuclei receive an equal number of chromosomes, i.e. 10 respectively. The two middle members of a tetrapartite chromosome are equal in size and larger than the two end ones which differ in size from each other. As a result, two kinds of gametes may be formed, one having a larger amount of chromatin volume than the other. The tetrapartite chromosome may be a sex chromosome complex in H. lupulus, a new type of sex chromosome.8. At metaphase of the first meiotic division in the microsporocytes of Xanthoxylum piperitum, 35 chromosomes are counted, one of which is not only the largest

Oenothera rubrinervis; A Half Mutant

1. Oenothera rubrinervis is a half mutant, produced by the copulation of a mutated gamete with a normal velutina gamete of O. Lamarckiana. 2. In consequence, it produces about one-fourth empty grains, a mass mutation of about one-fourth pure or double mutants, and one-half specimens of O. rubrinervis, which will repeat the splitting. 3. The pure or double mutant is called O. mut. deserens. It is very similar to O. rubrinervis, but the leaves of its young rosettes and the bracts of its flower spike are broader and more even. 4. O. mut. deserens is constant from seed. It has no hereditary empty grains. 5. The formula for the self-fertilization of O. rubrinervis is therefore O. (deserens + velutina) = des. x des. + velu. x velu. + des. x velu. The first combination gives the mass mutation, the second the empty grains, the third the normal plants of O. rubrinervis. 6. In crossing with other species the two kinds of gametes will produce twin hybrids, as, for example, laeta and velutina. This assertion has been controlled by making the corresponding crosses of O. mut. deserens and O. mut. velutina. The first produce the laeta and the second the hybrid velutina. The result of a cross of O. rubrinervis is equal to the sum of these two crosses. 7. Outside of the mass mutability into O. deserens, O. rubrinervis is not known to mutate to any noticeable degree. This shows that the internal constitution, which causes the mass mutation, is not in itself a cause for further mutability. 8. The constitution of the gametes of O. rubrinervis can directly be proven by a cross with O. deserens, since O. rubrinervis = (deserens + velutina) x O. deserens produces O. deserens and (O. deserens x velutina) or rubrinervis. 9. Crosses of O. rubrinervis with O. Lamarckiana give three types of hybrids, besides about one-fourth empty seeds. One type exactly resembles O. Lamarckiana and is constant in its progeny. A second type called lucida has broader and more shiny leaves, and after self-fertilization splits off brittle specimens. The third type is either subrobusta or rubrinervis, and in the first case may produce the brittle form in the second generation. All these phenomena are easily explained by the proposed formula for the constitution of O. rubrinervis as a half mutant. They were confirmed by means of crosses with O. nanella and some other mutants. 10. O. oblonga is quite analogous to O. rubrinervis, since it must arise through a mutation of the typical sexual cells of O. Lamarckiana, leaving the velutina gametes unchanged. Contrary to O. rubrinervis, however, the two lethal factors remain in their condition, and moreover the mutated gametes must be assumed to become suppressed in the pollen of the mutant. 11. O. nanella seems to arise through mutations in the velutina gametes of O. Lamarckiana, since after crosses with other species or mutants it is not split off by the laeta hybrids, but only by those of the type velutina.

Inheritance of Sex in the Grape

Previous articleNext article FreeInheritance of Sex in the GrapeW. D. ValleauW. D. Valleau Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The American Naturalist Volume 50, Number 597Sep., 1916 Published for The American Society of Naturalists Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/279565 Views: 144Total views on this site Citations: 16Citations are reported from Crossref PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Florian Jabbour, Felipe Espinosa, Quentin Dejonghe, Timothée Le Péchon Development and Evolution of Unisexual Flowers: A Review, Plants 11, no.22 (Jan 2022): 155.https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11020155David Carrasco, Alberto Bellido, Alba M. Vargas, Sandrine Picq, Roberto Bacilieri, Patrice This, Rosa Arroyo-Garcia Comparative analysis of the expression of sex candidate genes in flower of dioecious and hermaphrodite grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. ssp.), Scientia Horticulturae 274 (Dec 2020): 109639.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2020.109639João L. Coito, Helena G. Silva, Miguel J.N. Ramos, Jorge Cunha, José Eiras-Dias, Sara Amâncio, Maria M.R. Costa, Margarida Rocheta Vitis flower types: from the wild to crop plants, PeerJ 7 (Nov 2019): e7879.https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7879João L. Coito, Helena Silva, Miguel J. N. Ramos, Miguel Montez, Jorge Cunha, Sara Amâncio, Maria M. R. Costa, Margarida Rocheta , Frontiers in Plant Science 9 ( 2018).https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01029João L. Coito, Miguel J. N. Ramos, Jorge Cunha, Helena G. Silva, Sara Amâncio, Maria M. R. Costa, Margarida Rocheta VviAPRT3 and VviFSEX: Two Genes Involved in Sex Specification Able to Distinguish Different Flower Types in Vitis, Frontiers in Plant Science 8 (Jan 2017).https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00098Shahal Abbo, Avi Gopher, Simcha Lev-Yadun Fruit Domestication in the Near East, (Nov 2015): 325–378.https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119107743.ch7Carla Hustak The stories rocks can tell: Marie Stopes' evolutionary narratives of plant sex in New Brunswick's Fern Ledges, Gender, Place & Culture 21, no.77 (Jul 2013): 888–904.https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2013.817967Iris Fechter, Ludger Hausmann, Margrit Daum, Thomas Rosleff Sörensen, Prisca Viehöver, Bernd Weisshaar, Reinhard Töpfer Candidate genes within a 143 kb region of the flower sex locus in Vitis, Molecular Genetics and Genomics 287, no.33 (Jan 2012): 247–259.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00438-012-0674-zReinhard Töpfer, Ludger Hausmann, Rudolf Eibach Molecular Breeding, (Jun 2011): 160–185.https://doi.org/10.1201/b10948-8U. Nürnberg-Krüger Die Wirkung (der Geschlechtsfaktoren) bei diplogenotypischer Bestimmung, (Jan 1967): 51–109.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-95000-1_4D. LEWIS THE EVOLUTION OF SEX IN FLOWERING PLANTS, Biological Reviews 17, no.11 (Jan 1942): 46–67.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1942.tb00431.xC. E. Allen The genotypic basis of sex-expression in angiosperms, The Botanical Review 6, no.66 (Jun 1940): 227–300.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02882399E. N. Bressman INHERITANCE OF SEX IN CERTAIN SEED PLANTS, American Journal of Botany 21, no.66 (Jun 1934): 328–349.https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1934.tb04966.xBernhard Husfeld Über die Züchtung plasmoparawiderstandsfähiger Reben, (Jan 1932): 15–92.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-38236-3_1W. D. Valleau THE INHERITANCE OF FLOWER TYPES AND FERTILITY IN THE STRAWBERRY, American Journal of Botany 10, no.55 (May 1923): 259–274.https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1923.tb05725.xPeter Okkelberg The early history of the germ cells in the brook lamprey, entosphenus wilderi (GAGE), up to and including the period of sex differentiation, Journal of Morphology 35, no.11 (Mar 1921): 1–151.https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.1050350102