Kindergarten Retention Research Articles

An examination of the use and outcomes of readiness assessments, retention policies, and title 1 funding for kindergarten children in the United States

The current study examined the prevalence and usage of three theoretically informed school-level policies, namely the use of readiness assessments, retention policies, and Title I funds in kindergarten classrooms across the United States. Using the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Class of 2011, we examined whether these school-level policies in kindergarten were related to children's academic learning both generally, and specifically for those who had attended pre-K. Results revealed that the use of kindergarten readiness assessments, kindergarten retention policies, and Title I funds in kindergarten were widespread across the nation. However, application and usage of these school-level policies were varied. Moreover, these school-level policies were generally not associated with children's academic learning broadly or differentially for those who had attended pre-K in the year before kindergarten. This study establishes a national snapshot of the kindergarten landscape in the United States and opens a door for future research to continue to explore how kindergarten specific school-level policies shape children's learning.

Differences in Reading by the Retention Status of English Learners: A Texas, Statewide Investigation

In this study, the degree to which Kindergarten retention was related to the reading performance of English Learners in Grade 3 was addressed. Through inferential statistical analyses of Texas statewide data, statistically significant differences were yielded between English Learners who had been retained in Kindergarten and their counterparts who had not been retained in Kindergarten. English Learners who had been retained in Kindergarten performed statistically significantly poorer on the Approaches Grade Level standard, the Meets Grade Level standard, and the Masters Grade Level standard on the Texas mandated assessment in Grade 3 than did English Learners who had not been retained. Clearly, retention in Kindergarten of these English Learners did not yield the intended outcomes. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Retention in Kindergarten for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Improvement, Delusion or Both?

Student retention in kindergarten is a common practice so that students will obtain the necessary school preparation for elementary school. The current study examines the impacts of retention on the students with ASD. A sample of 110 students was taken from kindergartens all over Greece, and it was observed that the retention was advantageous, but not for all students. Retention has not actually been beneficial for students from families with low educational attainment as well as students from foreign families. Moreover, these findings apply to students who could not attend extracurricular supporting programs. A serious dilemma came up as a result of all the above about the real benefits of the retention.

Identification and Sensitivity Analysis for Average Causal Mediation Effects with Time-Varying Treatments and Mediators: Investigating the Underlying Mechanisms of Kindergarten Retention Policy.

Considering that causal mechanisms unfold over time, it is important to investigate the mechanisms over time, taking into account the time-varying features of treatments and mediators. However, identification of the average causal mediation effect in the presence of time-varying treatments and mediators is often complicated by time-varying confounding. This article aims to provide a novel approach to uncovering causal mechanisms in time-varying treatments and mediators in the presence of time-varying confounding. We provide different strategies for identification and sensitivity analysis under homogeneous and heterogeneous effects. Homogeneous effects are those in which each individual experiences the same effect, and heterogeneous effects are those in which the effects vary over individuals. Most importantly, we provide an alternative definition of average causal mediation effects that evaluates a partial mediation effect; the effect that is mediated by paths other than through an intermediate confounding variable. We argue that this alternative definition allows us to better assess at least a part of the mediated effect and provides meaningful and unique interpretations. A case study using ECLS-K data that evaluates kindergarten retention policy is offered to illustrate our proposed approach.

Parents’ and teachers’ views on the psychosocial adjustment of students with and without a history of early grade retention

The study compared teachers’ and parents’ views about elementary school children’s psychosocial adjustment with and without a history of early grade retention. The sample included retained and non-retained students currently in Grades Two and Four (age range 7.5 to 11.6 years) in Cypriot public schools. The retained students experienced early grade retention either in kindergarten or Grade One and, therefore, were one year older than their current classmates. Both parents and teachers of all children completed a psychosocial adjustment inventory designed to assess social, emotional, and school competence as well as behaviour problems. The findings indicated important differences between teachers and parents in their evaluation of children’s psychosocial adjustment, but notable similarities in consistently evaluating early-retained children lower on all aspects of adjustment. Teachers evaluated all students lower than parents in terms of behaviour, school, and social competence. Both groups, however, considered retained students lower in social and school competence regardless of grade level. The implications of these findings in relation to evaluation aspects of psychosocial adjustment and the practice of early-grade retention are discussed.

Retention in Kindergarten: A Case Study of Teacher Perceptions and Practices

The educational practice of retention – holding a student back to repeat a year – is a strategy used in many schools in the USA to improve outcomes for students, even at the kindergarten level. Research findings on retention in kindergarten are inconsistent with regards to reasons for and benefits of retaining students. Examining the issue using a case study can provide valuable insight into how retention decisions are made and what the perceived benefits are. This study draws on data from a survey, an interview and 40 hours of classroom observations to explore one teacher’s views of kindergarten retention and the interventions she used to help students at risk of retention, as well as the type of feedback she gave at-risk students in the classroom. It was found that the teacher emphasized motivating and involving at-risk students and working with them one-on-one. Overall, though, she felt that parents working with their children at home could make the difference in whether a student was retained or not. Since three of the five students the teacher identified as being at risk for retention were Hispanic, and research indicates that the expectations for this type of parental involvement may not be familiar to Hispanic families, I conclude that teachers should explicitly communicate and explain these expectations to all parents.

Socioeconomic and health factors associated with kindergarten retention in Australian children.

We aimed to identify key socioeconomic and health factors that are associated with a child's likelihood of being retained in kindergarten prior to commencing first year of school in Australian children. We used data linked from the School Entrant Health Questionnaire administered to children commencing school in 2012 (N = 42 002). Kindergarten retention here is defined by children accessing a second year of funded kindergarten prior to commencing school. We used logistic regression analysis to estimate the strength of associations between a range of socioeconomic and health factors to the likelihood of kindergarten retention. Of the 25 289 children included in our analysis, 903 (3.6%) had a second year of funded kindergarten prior to commencing school. In comparison, 1680 children out of 42 002 in the Kinder-School Entrant Health Questionnaire dataset had a second year of funded kindergarten (4.0%). From our final regression model, the highest association was found in children whose parents reported a history of speech and language difficulties (odds ratio 2.25, 95% confidence interval (1.91-2.66)) (adjusting for a range of demographic, health and developmental factors). Similarly, children from an indigenous background were twice as likely to be retained in kindergarten compared with those with a non-indigenous background (odds ratio 2.06 (1.17-3.64)). This analysis adds to the evidence base that children who are more socially disadvantaged as well as children with health difficulties, particularly speech and language difficulties, are more likely to be retained in kindergarten.

The effects of early grade retention: Effect modification by prior achievement and age

This study examines the effects of early grade retention and different effects according to prior achievement and age. Within a population of children at risk of early retention, we compared the development throughout primary school in mathematics achievement after kindergarten retention, first-grade retention, and continuous promotion. Analyzing data from a large-scale longitudinal study using covariate balancing propensity score weighting, the findings revealed that early grade repeaters would score higher in mathematics if they were promoted each year instead. However, the effects diminished or even disappeared in the long term. Compared to kindergarten retention, first-grade retention was found to be more harmful for the mathematics development of younger children specifically.

Altering School Progression Through Delayed Entry or Kindergarten Retention: Propensity Score Analysis of Long-Term Outcomes

ABSTRACTThe authors examined long-term outcomes for children who experienced delayed entry to kindergarten or kindergarten retention. They used a cohort of 6,841 students to compare these groups to each other and typically progressing peers. First, the authors compared the groups on demographic and early childhood variables. For the long-term school-based outcomes, they used propensity score analysis to address pretreatment differences between groups and examined outcomes by free or reduced-price versus paid lunch status. Results showed that the retained group experienced greater early risk than the delayed entry and typically progressing groups and poorer long-term outcomes even when controlling for pre-existing differences. Other than placement in special education, few differences emerged between the delayed entry and typically progressing groups. Implications of the study for progression decisions are discussed.

Effects of kindergarten retention for at-risk children’s psychosocial development

Kindergarten retention is a popular practice for children who are considered unready for primary school. However, past research has not yet succeeded to find consistent, strong empirical evidence supporting the practice. In the current study, kindergarten repeaters’ development in nine psychosocial domains is compared with that of equally at risk but (1) continuously promoted age-mates and (2) promoted age-mates who repeated first grade instead. Analysing data from a large-scale longitudinal study using propensity score matching and multilevel modelling, the findings reveal no harm of kindergarten retention for at-risk children’s long term psychosocial development. Rather, we find that, relative to equally at-risk but continuously promoted children, kindergarten repeaters benefit from retention with respect to higher levels of well-being, and peer relations, and lower levels of hyperactivity, aggression and asocial behaviour. Compared to similar children who were promoted but who were retained in first grade instead, kindergarten repeaters are found to benefit more from retention with respect to higher levels of well-being, self-confidence, attitude to work and independent behaviour, and lower levels of hyperactivity.

Effects of kindergarten retention for at-risk children’s mathematics development

When a child does not seem to be ready for primary school, a popular practice is to grant the child more time by letting it repeat kindergarten. However, previous quasi-experimental research demonstrated negative, though diminishing, effects of kindergarten retention on academic learning during the first years of primary school. The present study extends the existing evidence by addressing children’s post-treatment school trajectories. Analysing data from a large-scale longitudinal study, we find that, on average, kindergarten repeaters would perform better for mathematics until five years later, were they promoted to first grade instead. However, if promoted instead, kindergarten repeaters would also have a higher likelihood to be retained in first grade and, under that condition, have a lower growth rate and score lower for mathematics five years later.

Further understanding factors associated with grade retention: Birthday effects and socioemotional skills

Young-for-grade kindergarteners experience a disproportionate risk of retention compared to their old-for-grade peers. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten cohort dataset, this study investigated whether socioemotional skills mediated the association of age with kindergarten retention. Multilevel logistic regression models tested whether certain positive (e.g., interpersonal skills, approaches to learning) and negative (e.g., externalizing behavior) socioemotional skills were related to the likelihood of grade repetition, while controlling for academic abilities and student demographic variables. Findings showed that the relatively youngest kindergarteners were approximately five times more likely to be retained compared to the oldest student and that a child's approach to learning (e.g., attentiveness, task persistence) contributed as much as a child's academic abilities in relation to the likelihood of repeating a grade.

What Would It Take to Change an Inference? Using Rubin’s Causal Model to Interpret the Robustness of Causal Inferences

We contribute to debate about causal inferences in educational research in two ways. First, we quantify how much bias there must be in an estimate to invalidate an inference. Second, we utilize Rubin’s causal model to interpret the bias necessary to invalidate an inference in terms of sample replacement. We apply our analysis to an inference of a positive effect of Open Court Curriculum on reading achievement from a randomized experiment, and an inference of a negative effect of kindergarten retention on reading achievement from an observational study. We consider details of our framework, and then discuss how our approach informs judgment of inference relative to study design. We conclude with implications for scientific discourse.

Can Teacher Ratings of Students’ Skills at Kindergarten Entry Predict Kindergarten Retention?

ABSTRACT Though early childhood literature defines kindergarten readiness in the context of the whole child across multiple domains, there is little research to demonstrate the relative influence of these domains on success in the kindergarten year. In this study, we use teacher judgments of students at the start of the kindergarten year across multiple domains as predictors of retention in kindergarten the following year. The analyses demonstrated that low ratings of students’ skills are predictive of retention, particularly for young males eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. Further, the analyses showed that of the set of domains, low ratings of literacy and numeracy skills are most closely associated with increased likelihood of retention.

Estimating the Impact of Grade Retention: A Heterogenous Analysis

While the practice of grade retention is very widespread, previous research has consistently provided negative results regarding its impact. In this study, we execute a widespread analysis of the effects of retention, thereby specifically taking into account its endogenous and heterogenous nature. We execute an IV-estimation, using the strong correlation between month of birth and retention as an instrument, to assess the former and conduct a stepwise estimation method to deal with the latter. We thereby make a clear distinction between retention in kindergarten (Late Starts) and retention thereafter (Grade Retention). By looking at test scores at age 15, we find that the practice of Grade Retention is consistently bad for the whole distribution, while Late Starts do produce positive results for those at the lower end.

Child, family, and childcare predictors of delayed school entry and kindergarten retention among linguistically and ethnically diverse children.

Concern about kindergarten retention is on the rise within the current climate of high-stakes testing and escalating kindergarten expectations. Kindergarten retention has been linked in previous research to various risk factors such as poverty, low maternal education, single parent status, minority status, English language learner (ELL) status, and male gender. However, these factors are also associated with poor school readiness and low kindergarten performance--the very reasons children are retained in the 1st place. This study teases apart unique and combined predictors of delayed entry into kindergarten and kindergarten retention with a large (n = 13,191) ethnically diverse, at-risk sample of children. Delayed kindergarten entry was rare for this sample but more likely among boys, native English speakers, those with poorer school readiness, less maternal education, and greater resources, and those who attended childcare rather than public school prekindergarten (pre-K) at age 4 years. Boys were more likely to be retained in kindergarten, but only because of their poorer school readiness. After strong effects for age 4 school readiness were controlled, only poverty, ELL status, and preschool program attendance predicted retention. ELL students were less likely to be retained than were native speakers, and those who attended public school pre-K programs were less likely to be retained, compared with those in childcare at age 4 years. After controlling for children's actual performance in kindergarten their 1st time, Caucasian children and children with lower language and social skills at age 4 years were more likely to repeat kindergarten.

Kept back to get ahead? Kindergarten retention and academic performance

While most existing research concludes that grade retention generates no benefits for the retainees’ academic performance, holding low-achieving children back has been a popular practice for decades. Drawing on a recently collected nationally representative dataset in the US, this paper estimates the causal effect of repeating kindergarten on the retained children's academic performance. Since we observe children being held back only when they enroll in schools that permit kindergarten retention, this paper jointly models the choice of enrolling in a school that allows kindergarten retention, the decision of repeating kindergarten, and children's academic performance in higher grades. A control function approach is developed to estimate the resulting double-hurdle treatment model, which accounts for unobserved heterogeneity in the retention effect. A nearest-neighbor matching estimator is also implemented. Holding children back in kindergarten is found to have positive but diminishing effects on their academic performance up to third grade.

Early School-Age Outcomes of Late Preterm Infants

Late preterm infants represent a significant portion of preterm deliveries. Until recently, these infants have received little attention because of assumptions that they carry minimal risk for long-term morbidities. The purpose of this study was to compare prekindergarten and kindergarten outcomes among healthy late preterm infants, 34 0/7 to 36 6/7 weeks' gestation at birth, and healthy term infants, 37 0/7 to 41 6/7 weeks' gestation at birth. The study sample consisted of singleton infants who were born in Florida between January 1, 1996, and August 31, 1997, with a gestational age between 34 and 41 weeks (N = 161804) with a length of stay < or =72 hours. Seven early school-age outcomes were analyzed. Outcomes were adjusted for 15 potential confounding maternal and infant variables. Unadjusted and adjusted relative risk with 95% confidence interval was estimated for each outcome by using Poisson regression modeling. Risk for developmental delay or disability was 36% higher among late preterm infants compared with term infants. Risk for suspension in kindergarten was 19% higher for late preterm infants. The remaining 4 outcomes, disability in prekindergarten at 3 and 4 years of age, exceptional student education, and retention in kindergarten, all carried a 10% to 13% increased risk among late preterm infants. The assessment "not ready to start school" was borderline significant. This study suggests that healthy late preterm infants compared with healthy term infants face a greater risk for developmental delay and school-related problems up through the first 5 years of life.

Effects of kindergarten retention on children's social-emotional development: An application of propensity score method to multivariate, multilevel data.

This study examines the effects of kindergarten retention on children's social-emotional development in the early, middle, and late elementary years. Previous studies have generated mixed results partly due to some major methodological challenges, including selection bias, measurement error, and divergent perceptions of multiple respondents in different domains of child development. The authors address these challenges by using propensity score stratification to contend with selection bias and by embedding measurement models in hierarchical models to account for measurement error and to model dependence among observations. The authors' analyses of a series of multivariate models enable them to compare the retention effects across different respondents over different time points. In general, the results show no evidence suggesting that kindergarten retention does harm to children's social-emotional development. Rather, the findings suggest that, had the retained kindergartners been promoted to the first grade instead, they would possibly have developed a lower level of self-confidence and interest in reading and all school subjects 2 years later and would have displayed a higher level of internalizing problem behaviors at the end of the treatment year and 2 years later.

Supplemental Material for Effects of Kindergarten Retention on Children's Social-Emotional Development: An Application of Propensity Score Method to Multivariate, Multilevel Data

Supplemental Material for Effects of Kindergarten Retention on Children's Social-Emotional Development: An Application of Propensity Score Method to Multivariate, Multilevel Data