Kind Of Necessity Research Articles

Knowing who occupies an office: purely contingent, necessary and impossible offices

This paper examines different kinds of definite descriptions denoting purely contingent, necessary or impossible objects. The discourse about contingent/impossible/necessary objects can be organised in terms of rational questions to ask and answer relative to the modal profile of the entity in question. There are also limits on what it is rational to know about entities with this or that modal profile. We will also examine epistemic modalities; they are the kind of necessity and possibility that is determined by epistemic constraints related to knowledge or rationality. Definite descriptions denote so-called offices, roles, or things to be. We explicate these α-offices as partial functions from possible worlds to chronologies of objects of type α, where α is mostly the type of individuals. Our starting point is Prior’s distinction between a ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ definite article ‘the’. In both cases, the definite description refers to at most one object; yet, in the case of the weak ‘the’, the referred object can change over time, while in the case of the strong ‘the’, the object referred to by the definite description is the same forever, once the office has been occupied. The main result we present is the way how to obtain a Wh-knowledge about who or what plays a given role presented by a hyper-office, i.e. procedure producing an office. Another no less important result concerns the epistemic necessity of the impossibility of knowing who or what occupies the impossible office presented by a hyper-office.

What is absolute modality?

ABSTRACT Talk of metaphysical modality as “absolute” is ambiguous, as it appears to convey multiple ideas. Metaphysical possibility is supposedly completely unrestricted or unqualified; metaphysical necessity is unconditional and exceptionless. Moreover, metaphysical modality is thought to be absolute in the sense that it's real or genuine and the most objective modality: metaphysical possibility and necessity capture ways things could and must have really been. As we disentangle these ideas, certain talk of metaphysical modality qua “absolute” turns out to be misguided. Metaphysical possibility isn't completely unrestricted or most inclusive compared to the other modalities; metaphysical necessity, like all kinds of necessities, is relative to or conditional upon a specific framework of reference. Still, metaphysical modality captures how things could and must have really been most generally because it deals with reality and the nature of things or their essence. That's the chief interest of metaphysics. Arguments against the alleged absoluteness of metaphysical modality may not thereby undermine its philosophical significance.

Lighting Up the Heritage Sciences: The Past and Future of Laser-Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy in the Field of Cultural Goods

With the rapid scientific and technological changes that occur every day, a new kind of necessity, real-time, rapid, and accurate detection methods, preferably also non- or minimally invasive and non-destructive, has emerged. One such method is laser-induced fluorescence spectroscopy (LIF), applied in various fields of activity in recent decades, ranging from industry and biochemistry to medicine and even heritage sciences. Fluorescence-based spectroscopic methods have all of the above-mentioned characteristics, and their functionality has been proven in many studies. Yet, they have not known great success as other molecular techniques. This paper is a short synthesis of the role of the laser-induced fluorescence spectroscopy technique in heritage sciences, the main applications in this field, along with its advantages and limitations. The article focuses on the most common types of lasers used, the merging of two or more methods into hybrid techniques, the enhancement of the analytical capabilities of LIF and post-processing methods, and also explores some future development possibilities of LIF.

СОСТОЯНИЕ ГАСТРОНОМИИ КАК ОТРАЖЕНИЕ СОЦИАЛЬНЫХ ПОТРЕБНОСТЕЙ

In the proposed study, the author conducted a detailed analysis of the needs in society or, in other words, social needs. Having determined that a social need is a kind of necessity, we believe that gastronomy is also a necessity, carrying a certain cultural code, of each individual in social identification. Consequently, gastronomy is a need of society and at the same time its essential characteristic. In general, speaking of needs, it must be said that their interrelated set is determined by the society in which a person is located. Even identical sets of needs of individuals belonging to different societies or even social groups have different contents. Thus, here we can say that gastronomic culture, as a need, is determined by society, while gastronomy is not a personal need, but a social one, dictated by the individual's belonging to a social group or the whole society. By carrying out actions to realize and satisfy the specified gastronomic need, a person simultaneously develops it, supplementing it with some elements, but strictly within the given framework. By the way, going beyond a certain culture, expanding its borders, can be interpreted in two ways – as a departure from traditions, or as simply scaling them. Speaking about the current state of gastronomic culture, the author defines its two essential characteristics – globalization and technologization (replacing the traditional with man-made and rationalized). These characteristics form, firstly, a new collective consciousness and memory, and, secondly, are a prerequisite for the transformation of existing nutrition practices based on human needs and the offshoot of new food strategies.

Exploring the Notion of Necessity in Essentialist Legal Theory

AbstractEssentialist legal theorists, represented by Raz, have depicted legal theory as a project of seeking necessary truths about law. They have, however, left the notion of necessity in their conception of legal theory largely unexplained. This paper explores four different notions of necessity in the philosophical literature and investigates two issues: first, what kind of necessity best fits the notion of necessity implicit in the essentialist conception of legal theory, and secondly, whether that notion of necessity is a coherent one that withstands philosophical challenges. I argue that the Putnamian notion of quasi-necessity best fits essentialist legal theorists’ self-understanding, but the notion of quasi-necessity does not withstand Ebbs’s two challenges. Meanwhile, although Plunkett’s theory of metalinguistic negotiation can be used to preserve a coherent notion of necessity that circumvents Ebbs’s two challenges, due to its broadly anti-essentialist underpinnings such a notion is unlikely to be congenial to essentialist legal theorists.

Literatura policial y policía: reflexiones a partir de dos intervenciones críticas (José Pablo Feinmann y Carlos Gamerro)

I propose a close reading on two critical interventions about crime fiction in Argentina: “Estado policial y novela negra argentina” (1991) by José Pablo Feinmann and “Para una reformulación del género policial argentino” (2006) by Carlos Gamerro. Beyond the time difference between the two, I observe aspects in common. Both texts elaborate a corpus of writers and fictions; propose an interpretative guide between the literary and the political-social series; maintain a specific interest in the relationship between crime fiction and police; and elaborate figures of enunciators who serve both as theorists of the genre and as writers of fiction. Among these four dimensions, the one that particularly interests me here is the third, since it allows me to investigate the link that is assumed between “detective fiction” and “police institution”. My conclusion is twofold: on the one hand, in both essays predominates a reductionist vision of the genre, since a kind of necessity is emphasized in the representation of the social order; on the other, its main objective seems to lie in intervening directly on the definitions of the detective fiction in Argentina (and, on this point, both texts acquire an undoubtedly prescriptive nuance).

Wie viele Arten von Möglichkeit gibt es? Ein Kommentar zu Barbara Vetters "Möglichkeit ohne mögliche Welten"

One implication of Vetter's theory of modality is that necessity and possibility are regarded as unitary natural kinds. In this paper, I argue that from the perspective of the philosophy of causation, there are good reasons to distinguish between different kinds of necessity: causal necessity, which is nomologically necessary, and non-causal necessity, which is metaphysically necessary. One challenge for Vetter's approach is to explain this distinction. Keywords: nomological necessity, metaphysical necessity, causation, metaphysical dependence, natural kinds

Metaphysical teleology in Islam From the cosmic purpose to the perfect human

This article aims to present the Metaphysical teleology in Islam; Metaphysical teleology is one of the Greek philosophical ideas that were adopted by some schools of Islamic thought to delineate the relationship between divinity and man, or between it and the world. What I mean by metaphysical teleology is to say that there is an ultimate purpose that governs the relationship of divinity to man or to the world, and that this ultimate purpose has a metaphysical existence independent of the divine will, and that; in addition, a kind of necessity or necessity is exercised upon it. The maxim of metaphysical teleology goes back to Greek philosophy, especially Plato in his theory known as the miṯhal and specifically the example of good and right and its role in being a model for the Platonic universe maker to follow in shaping the world. From Plato to Aristotle and his theory of the four causes, especially the final cause, to the Stoics and their belief in divine providence, these ideas were transmitted to Muslims through their early contact with Hellenistic thought, so that this kind of thinking appears in some schools of Islamic thought, from theologians, philosophers and Sufi philosophers.

The bidimensionality of modal variety

ABSTRACT It is widely accepted that necessity comes in different varieties, often called ‘kinds’: metaphysical necessity, logical necessity, natural necessity, conceptual necessity, moral necessity, to name but a few – and the same goes for the varieties of possibility. What is usually not fully appreciated, however, is that modal variety is not simply ‘unidimensional’: it does not only involve one main variable – kind, whose values are the particular kinds of necessity. Rather, I argue, it is ‘bidimensional’, involving two distinct variables – domain and strength. In the first part of the paper, I introduce and develop the proposed bidimensional picture of modal variety, defending it against the common, unidimensional one. In the second part, I consider how the main available accounts of necessities and their relations rely, at least to a significant extent, on the latter picture, pointing out important limitations that they face as a result. I also show how, accordingly, alternative accounts based on a clear and systematic distinction between domain and strength would overcome those limitations. I conclude that, beyond the particular bidimensionalist view defended, our understanding of the modal realm may benefit from more direct debate on whether and how it is multidimensional.

Embankments and Inundation in Bengal: An Early Colonial Transition

In a tropical monsoon country like India, embankment construction is a particular kind of necessity, an obligation imposed by nature. It is a defence against depredation caused by the force of water for which collective action was necessary. What necessitated dams or dykes to be built was the seasonal volatility of the rivers, especially the Ganges or Brahmaputra, which were significant because of their size. Embankment construction was thus a major public work activity in an era when such undertakings by the state and society were limited by financial resources and the availability of expertise. But there was a difference in approach to embankment construction and the state support given to such public enterprise, over time. While the eighteenth century had a positive approach and did not see the embankments as mere physical structures designed to cope with floods but as organic parts of tracts of land, the nineteenth century experts tended to view embankments as hindrance to natural irrigation and the cause of rather than the remedy to violent inundations. This was the opinion of experts with greater knowledge and resources at their disposal. Nineteenth century experts on embankment maintenance regarded the Permanent Settlement as the benchmark of the early colonial state’s decisive intervention in this respect and thought that the obligation of previous governments to maintain embankments should be taken as of practically no significance at all. The settlement of the character of the Permanent Settlement ‘must obviously change the whole nature of such obligations’. This article does not agree with this point of view. The article looks at the nature of this important public work activity with focus on its history in the second half of the eighteenth century and also examines how the nineteenth century experts historically reviewed the necessity of embankments as those had existed in the past.

Hermeneutics of translation and understanding of violence

The philosophical definition of violence today is ?incomplete? and leaves a ?gap? between the phenomenon and the concept. This is due to the fact that the concept of ?violence? was/is strangely included in the general philosophical categorial line. In domestic and Western discourse, the problem field of violence contains, above all, political and ethical meanings. The problem is intuitively resolved in its appeal to the concept of ?power?, which turns out to be philosophically lost in modern philosophy. Only exceptionally do we find ?traces? of this concept in philosophical works. Among them are the works of Aristotle, which need to be freed from modern, distorting interpretations. Thus, in the translations of Aristotle, the Greek ???????, used for the traditional transferring the category of possibility, lost its meaning of force (movement, ability, function); in its turn, ?force? lost relation to ?violence? (???) and ?necessity?. Violence is understood as a kind of necessity, which is associated with the suppression of one?s ?own decision?, freedom, something that ?prevents desire? and contrary to ?common thinking,? as well as the absence of ?good?. Violence is presented not only in an ontological sense, but also existentially, as the opposite of ?good? and of one?s own ?desire?. Force remains in the shadow of ?necessity? as ?possibility?, ?potential energy? and ?movement?, and violence loses the opposition that has arisen in an ontological mode.

ABOUT CONDITIONAL SENTENCES İN TURKISH TURKIC AND AZERBAIJANI TURKIC LANGUAGES

<p class="ql-align-justify">Investigating the characteristic features of the modern Turkish dialects in a comparative way recently became the most widely interested field among the Turkish studies. The reason for this is not only the tendency for convergence of the Turkic nations that split up for some reasons for a long time but also the&nbsp;eagerness of the linguists to prove to the linguistics science communities that the Turkic language family originates from the same roots and they exist as a whole. Hence, the investigation of the similarities and differences of the Modern Turkic Dialects in a comparative way and revealing the complete characteristic features of each dialect is a kind of necessity and an up-to-date concern. We argue that a comparative analysis of the conditional complex sentences in the modern Turkish and Azerbaijani languages, both of which are of the Southwest Turkic Dialects, will prove very useful for Turkish studies, considering the significance of comparative studies on the modern Turkic dialects and accents in regard to syntactical structure. There is a kind of sentence which is called the main sentence and it is formed by the means of the suffixes -sa, -se and they denote condition. And as the conditional part of the sentence in the Azerbaijani Turkic Language is not only used by the means of above-mentioned (-sa, -se) suffixes, but also by the other means, it leads us to focus on a huge difference between those two languages. <p class="ql-align-justify">In this paper, we shed light upon the views on the conditional complex sentences in grammar books by various researchers and proposed a variety of analyses based upon the comments of linguists on the conditional complex sentences in both languages.

HUMAN FACTOR IN PERFORMING COMPUTER BASED AND COMPUTERIZED TASKS: SYSTEMIC-STRUCTURAL ACTIVITY THEORY PERSPECTIVE

The purpose of this article is to highlight the issues related to human-computer interaction (HCI) and demonstrate how application of the Systemic-Structural Activity Theory (SSAT) allows to solve some of the problems related to utilization of software. Wide spread HCI is a relatively new phenomenon. Today people of all ages use gadgets to connect with their friends and relatives, to purchase all kinds of necessities, to work, travel and play. Software developers are often concentrated on coding while ignoring the human element. The software intended for work that is used hundreds of times during the day should be designed differently from the interface for the customers that might have to use it once. SSAT considers human activity as a structure that unfolds in time. Suggested in this framework methods of analysis of human performance allows to analyze the structure of the task, find its critical points, determine the complexity of task performance and compare different versions of interface design to choose the best version. SSAT suggests new methods of algorithmic description of human performance that allow to conduct the qualitative analysis of the software used to perform the task and derive the quantitative measures of complexity. Special attention is paid to the decision-making process and to the reliability of human performance. The developed analytical methods can be used at the design stage when software does not exist yet. These methods help to choose the best design version saving a lot of resources at the early stages of the design process. Here we are going to demonstrate how applying these methods we can improve user experience by make the task performance less complex and more efficient.

The concept of violence in the philosophy of Aristotle

The idea that the concept of 'violence' was part and is still viewed as part of a broad philosophical category may seem strange. However, the problem is resolved by referring to the concept of 'force,' which is lost in modern philosophy. The exception was the works in which we find some “traces” of this concept, including the works of Aristotle, which need to be free from modernizing interpretations. Still, in the translations of Aristotle, the Greek word δύναμις, used in its traditional meaning of potentiality, lost its connotations of force (movement, capability, function); in turn, 'force' was no longer linked with 'violence' (βια) and 'necessity.' Violence is seen as a kind of necessity, which is associated with the suppression of 'will,' freedom, something 'frustrating desire' and contrary to 'common sense,' as well as the absence of 'good.' Violence is presented not only in an ontological sense, but also existentially, as the opposite of 'good' and one's own 'desire.' Force stays in the background of 'necessity' as 'potentiality', 'potential energy' and 'movement', and violence loses the opposition that has arisen in the ontological mode.

Kant’s Response to Hume in the Second Analogy: A Critique of Gerd Buchdahl’s and Michael Friedman’s Accounts

This article presents a critical analysis of two influential readings of Kant’s Second Analogy, namely, Gerd Buchdahl’s “modest reading” and Michael Friedman’s “strong reading.” After pointing out the textual and philosophical problems with each, I advance an alternative reading of the Second Analogy argument. On my reading, the Second Analogy argument proves the existence of necessary and strictly universal causal laws. This, however, does not guarantee that Kant has a solution for the problem of induction. After I explain why the empirical lawfulness of nature does not guarantee the empirical uniformity of nature, I examine the modal status of empirical laws in Kant and argue contra Buchdahl and Friedman that empirical laws express two different kinds of necessity that are not reducible to each other.

Logicism and Formal Necessity: Reflections on Kant’s Modal Metaphysics

AbstractLogicism is Stang’s name for the Leibnizian doctrine that all necessary truths are derivable from identities and definitions. Stang shows that the early Kant opposed this doctrine because he thought the proposition God exists was a counterexample to it; I raise some non-theological counterexamples as well. Formal necessity is the necessity that attaches to a proposition when its truth is grounded in our categories and forms of intuition. Stang treats it as one of several sui generis kinds of necessity in Kant, all of them falling short of logical or metaphysical necessity. I raise several questions for Stang’s account, including the following: Can our having the forms we do really explain the necessity of geometry? Is our possession of those forms self-grounding in an objectionable way? How can our forms ground general truths without grounding particular instances of them?

Two kinds of necessity in Descartes: Conditional and absolute

This paper attempts to resolve the apparent conflict between Descartes’ commitments to the creation doctrine and the necessity of eternal truths by elaborating different conceptions of necessity in Descartes’ framework. More specifically, I argue that the fact that Descartes concedes the necessity of eternal truths does not compel him to assert the impossibility of their negation. Necessity, for Descartes, rather means immutability. Descartes distinguishes two kinds of immutable truths. While truths about God’s essence are absolutely immutable, truths about the essences of God’s creation are conditionally immutable, i.e., they can change if God’s will changes. Since there are different kinds of eternal truths, they express different kinds of necessity as well, namely conditional and absolute necessity. After I clarify these two kinds of necessity, I explain how Descartes coherently maintains both that eternal truths are necessary and that God could have created eternal truths otherwise without undermining their necessity. Keywords: Descartes, eternal truths, the creation doctrine, necessity, immutability.

The Cross, and Necessity: A Trinitarian Perspective

I argue that the understanding of the necessity of the cross for divine reconciliation needs to be re-evaluated in light of two components of a classical trinitarian metaphysic: the doctrine of inseparable operations and the doctrine of trinitarian missions. Drawing from Thomas Aquinas and Bernard Lonergan, I suggest that the economic actions of the incarnate Son are not antecedent conditions, but consequent conditions of God’s ultimate salvific ends. After sharpening this proposal in conversation with Nicholas Lombardo’s recent work, I further clarify the particular kind of necessity that attaches to the work of Christ, before responding to several objections.

Quantum Notes on Classic Places

I would like to sing about an unstable, yet constant force that stresses and pushes imagination. It makes cultural and social transformations a process to experience in person. [...]

Adaptive trajectory linearization control for hypersonic reentry vehicle

This paper presents an improved design for the hypersonic reentry vehicle (HRV) by the trajectory linearization control (TLC) technology for the design of HRV. The physics-based model fails to take into account the external disturbance in the flight envelope in which the stability and control derivatives prove to be nonlinear and time-varying, which is likely in turn to increase the difficulty in keeping the stability of the attitude control system. Therefore, it is of great significance to modulate the unsteady and nonlinear characteristic features of the system parameters so as to overcome the disadvantages of the conventional TLC technology that can only be valid and efficient in the cases when there may exist any minor uncertainties. It is just for this kind of necessity that we have developed a fuzzy-neural disturbance observer (FNDO) based on the B-spline to estimate such uncertainties and disturbances concerned by establishing a new dynamic system. The simulation results gained by using the aforementioned technology and the observer show that it is just due to the innovation of the adaptive trajectory linearization control (ATLC) system. Significant improvement has been realized in the performance and the robustness of the system in addition to its fault tolerance.