Kibera Slum In Nairobi Research Articles

Virulence and resistance genes in <i>Campylobacter spp</i> isolated from asymptomatic children at Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya

BACKGROUND Campylobacter spp. are among the global causes of food poisoning and harbour virulence and resistance genes which play a role in invasion and antibiotic resistance. This study aimed to detect selected resistance and virulence genes in archived Campylobacter spp. isolated from children in Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya. MATERIALS AND METHODS This was a retrospective laboratory-based cross-sectional study on archived samples of Campylobacter spp. at the Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi. Campylobacter isolates were cultured on modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate agar (mCCDA) media. The presence of selected virulence genes and resistance genes was detected by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (mPCR). STATA13 was used in data analysis. Binary logistic regression was used to ascertain the association between the genes and the Campylobacter spp. RESULTS The Campylobacter spp. under this study were Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) (50%), Campylobacter coli (C. coli) (38%) and Campylobacter lari (C. lari) (12%). The virulence genes detected were cgtB 37 (25%), pldA (20%), cdtA (17%), cdtB (16%), cdtC (6%), wlaN (5%), iam (4%), ciaB (4%) and VirB11 (3%). The virulence gene waaC was not detected in any of the isolates. The resistance genes detected were TetA (42%), Tet B (26%), GyrB (18%) and GyrA (14%). CONCLUSION The study revealed the presence of various virulence and resistance genes in Campylobacter spp. isolated from children. This information could help guide the development and enhancement of guidelines for the management of Campylobacter infections.

There Is No Free House: Ethnic Patronage in a Kenyan Slum

Using unique data from one of Africa's largest informal settlements, the Kibera slum in Nairobi, we provide evidence of ethnic patronage in the determination of rental prices and investments. Slum residents pay higher rents and live in lower quality housing (measured via satellite pictures) when the landlord and the locality chief belong to the same ethnicity. Conversely, rental prices are lower, and investments higher when residents and chiefs are co-ethnics. Our identification relies on the exogenous appointment of chiefs and is supported by several tests, including a regression discontinuity design. (JEL J15, O15, O17, O18, R21, R31)

Home of last resort: Urban land conflict and the Nubians in Kibera, Kenya

Amid expansive and often informal urban growth, conflict over land has become a severe source of instability in many cities. In slum areas, policies intended to alleviate tensions, including upgrading programmes, the legal regulation of informal tenure arrangements, and the reform of local governance structures, have had the unintended consequence of also spurring violence and conflict. This paper analyses the conflict over a proposed ‘ethnic homeland’ for the Nubian community in the Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya, in order to advance knowledge on the strategies communities adopt to promote their interests and how such strategies impact on urban conflict management. Theoretically, we apply the perspective of ‘institutional bricolage’, which captures how actors make use of existing formal and informal structures in pragmatic ways to meet their conflict management needs. While previous research focuses primarily on how bricolage can facilitate cooperation, the case analysis uncovers how, over time, the land issue has become closely intertwined with claims of identity and citizenship and a political discourse drawn along ethnic lines. In turn, such processes may contribute to the intractability of conflict, causing significant challenges for urban planning.

The Application of Wearable Technologies to Improve Healthcare in the World’s Poorest People

Wearable technologies could be influential for improving healthcare in underserved areas. Wearable sensors are straightforward to develop, have low production costs and the methods for processing high volumes of data are advanced. Here we examine the application of wearable technology for improving health in three poverty-related scenarios. The first is for diabetes prevention in Mexico City. The second is for medical care in the Kibera slum in Nairobi and the third is for the delivery of “health kits” to refugees. The analysis affirms that investment is worthwhile in mass scalable wearable technologies directed at the half of the world’s population who live in poverty.

Critical Analysis of Slum Tourism: A Retrospective on Bangalore

Slum tourism is a relatively unknown and controversial niche tourism segment. This form of tourism is mainly found in small pockets around the so-called third world. Slum tourism is famous in the Kibera slum in Nairobi and the Rochina slum in Rio de Janeiro. The largest slum in Asia, the Dharavi slum, became popular notably through the release of the Oscar-winning movie “Slumdog Millionaire” which highlighted the slum in Mumbai and thus brought the much-needed limelight on slum tourism otherwise known as poverty tourism. Slum tourism is the act of visiting low-income settlements also known as Favelas or simply as slums. Slum tourism has received mixed reviews of both a positive and negative character. A negative approach due to the very reason of it being seen as a means of showcasing the poor for the benefit of inquisitive tourists and critics say this form of tourism is voyeuristic and leads to the ill-treatment of slum dwellers. However, slum tourism can also lead to positive outcomes if managed in a sustainable manner it can develop employment opportunities for the slum dwellers. This paper deals with whether or not slum tourism has the potential of being developed in Bangalore, to find out if the much hype about slum tourism in Mumbai has created any demand for this niche market in Bangalore. A quantitative research methodology is used to investigate the matter. A survey and correlation analysis were conducted to delve into slum tours perspective of customers and travel agents of Bangalore. Findings of the study reveal that the potential customers or tourists are keen on taking such tours where as travel agents do not conduct slum tours as the profit margins are low.

Factors Influencing Academic Performance in Urban Informal Settlements in Kenya

In spite of the government’s commitment to provision of Universal Free Primary Education (FPE) to all children that have attained school going age, there are segments of the society which continue to face myriad of hurdles in access of and participation in basic education which affect their academic performance. Key among these are children in the slums. The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that influence academic performance in urban informal settlements.The study was carried out in public primary schools located in kibera slums of Nairobi county.The objectives of the study were;to establish social economic factors influencing academic performance,to examine the extent to which environmental factors influence academic performance and to find out pupils psychological factors that influence academic performance. The research employed descriptive survey design as the method for data analysis.Public primary schools located in Kibera,headteachers,teachers and class eight pupils were used as the target population. Purposive sampling was used to sample the schools and the headteachers. Simple random sampling was used to sample the teachers and the pupils. The sample size for the school and headteachers done at 100% hence four schools and four headteachers were used for the study. According to (Kasomo, 2006) Ten (10%) of all accessible population is enough for a descriptive survey study, therefore 10% of the total population for both the teachers and pupils was obtained. The sample size for teachers was 9 and for the pupils was 82. The study used questionnaires as the sole research tool to collect data from headteachers,teachers and pupils. Data collected was analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively using tables and percentages.

Creating Space: Sack Gardening as a Livelihood Strategy in the Kibera Slums of Nairobi, Kenya

As many countries in sub-Saharan Africa undergo rapid urbanization, a growing number of people are joining the ranks of the urban poor. Urban agriculture is a livelihood strategy used by the poor to improve their well-being, but it has remained largely inaccessible to inhabitants of slums, who generally lack access to land to farm. However, in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya, a relatively new form of urban agriculture has emerged, called sack gardening, in which farmers plant crops into the sides and tops of large sacks of soil. Our research asked how participation in sack gardening served to improve the livelihoods of farmers in the Kibera slums of Nairobi. We demonstrate that urban agriculture can be a viable and important livelihood strategy for households, even in densely populated slum environments. Low-space urban agricultural activities like sack gardening should receive greater consideration as part of urban development initiatives.

A Choice Experiment Study on Fuel Preference of Kibera Slum Households in Kenya

In Kenya, woody biomass, especially the charcoal derived from it, is an important energy resource for cooking. As better energy alternatives become available and affordable in developing countries, households tend to switch from traditional biomass to modern fuels such as liquid petroleum gas, kerosene, and electricity. This fuel-switching pattern is often called the ‘energy ladder’, the ladder steps representing upgrades in the quality of energy services. Meanwhile, fuel briquettes recycled from charcoal dust are gaining popularity as an alternate fuel in urban households facing problems of waste management. The valuing of energy services is important for policy planning and for improving the socioeconomic conditions and environments of households. The objective of this study is to assess the current energy use status of the urban poor in Kenya. More specifically, the study aims to better understand the relative importance of fuel substitution, especially with regard to charcoal, fuel briquettes, and kerosene, and the factors associated with their choice. To estimate the product-specific factors, we conducted a choice experiment study of households in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya, by applying a conditional logit model to identify the various socioeconomic characteristics that determine household preferences for cooking fuels. The study revealed household preferences for modern energy sources and several characteristics affecting consumer choice.

Real or Perceived: The Environmental Health Risks of Urban Sack Gardening in Kibera Slums of Nairobi, Kenya

Cities around the world are undergoing rapid urbanization, resulting in the growth of informal settlements or slums. These informal settlements lack basic services, including sanitation, and are associated with joblessness, low-income levels, and insecurity. Families living in such settlements may turn to a variety of strategies to improve their livelihoods and household food security, including urban agriculture. However, given the lack of formal sanitation services in most of these informal settlements, residents are frequently exposed to a number of environmental risks, including biological and chemical contaminants. In the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya, households practice a form of urban agriculture called sack gardening, or vertical gardening, where plants such as kale and Swiss chard are planted into large sacks filled with soil. Given the nature of farming in slum environments, farmers and consumers of this produce in Kibera are potentially exposed to a variety of environmental contaminants due to the lack of formal sanitation systems. Our research demonstrates that perceived and actual environmental risks, in terms of contamination of food crops from sack gardening, are not the same. Farmers perceived exposure to biological contaminants to be the greatest risk to their food crops, but we found that heavy metal contamination was also significant risk. By demonstrating this disconnect between risk perception and actual risk, we wish to inform debates about how to appropriately promote urban agriculture in informal settlements, and more generally about the trade-offs created by farming in urban spaces.

Urban agriculture, social capital, and food security in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya

Much of the developing world, including Kenya, is rapidly urbanizing. Rising food and fuel prices in recent years have put the food security of the urban poor in a precarious position. In cities worldwide, urban agriculture helps some poor people gain access to food, but urban agriculture is less common in densely populated slums that lack space. In the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya, households have recently begun a new form of urban agriculture called sack gardening in which vegetables such as kale and Swiss chard are planted into large sacks filled with topsoil. This paper examines relationships among sack gardening, social capital, and food security in Kibera. We used a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative interviews with a household survey, as well as focus group discussions with both farmers and non-farmers. We present evidence that sack gardening increases social capital, especially for those households that undertake sack gardening in groups. We also find that sack gardening in the Kibera slums has a positive impact on household food security by improving household dietary diversity and by reducing the need to resort to painful coping mechanisms that are used during food shortages.

Prevalence of visual problems in a rural population of Kenya

Dear editor, The poverty that is present in low-income countries has drastic consequences for blindness, visual impairment and general eye care services. Despite containing 10% of the world’s population, Africa accounts for 19% of the global blindness with an incidence of more than 1% (Naidoo 2007). Kenya is an African country of low development, with a human development index of 0.47. In this country, we have recently conducted a massive campaign of refractive error assessment in the context of international cooperation that has allowed us to study the prevalence of refractive errors and blindness associated with this factor in large sample of population. A total of 326 people attending for eye examination in April 2011 in the area of Voi and Buguta in South Kenya were examined. Mean age was 43.0 (SD: 19.3) years, with 53.1% women. LogMAR uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA) at distance was found to range from −0.08 to 1.30, with a mean value of 0.17 (SD: 0.25). Refraction was obtained in a total of 100 eyes because of the significant limitation in UCVA (≥0.3 LogMAR). Table 1 summarizes the mean refractive outcomes obtained. The percentage of refracted eyes with myopia, defined as an SE of −0.50 D or more negative, was 58%. The percentage of refracted eyes with hyperopia defined as an SE of +0.5 D or greater was 30%, while the percentage of hyperopia defined as an SE of +2.00 D or greater was 4% (Fig. 1). Distribution of the spherical equivalent in the 100 eyes in which spherocylindrical refraction was obtained. The main pathological conditions that were detected were as follows: cataract (14 patients, 4.3%), corneal leukoma (2 patients, 0.6%), ocular trauma (6 patients, 1.9%), exotropia (1 patient, 0.3%), glaucoma (3 patients, 0.9%) and conjunctivitis (4 patients, 1.2%). Pseudophakia was present in a total of 18 patients (5.5%). The prevalence of blindness (1.3%) and visual impairment (6.3%) found (Table 2) was similar than that reported in Kibera slums of Nairobi (0.6% and 6.2%) (Ndegwa et al. 2006) as well as than that reported in the Nakuru district (2% and 5.8%, respectively) (Mathenge et al. 2007). Therefore, our results are consistent with the previous scientific evidence. The incidence of refractive error as a cause of visual impairment was higher than that caused by cataract, but percentages were smaller (21.6% and 8.1%, respectively) than those reported in the previous mentioned studies. This suggests a greater coverage of vision services in the area analysed compared to other regions evaluated previously. One factor accounting for this may be the increasing number of campaigns for the prevention of blindness carried out in rural Kenya in the recent years. In this campaign, prescription was provided in a total of 181 patients (55.5%), sunglasses in 29 patients (8.9%) and artificial tears in 12 patients (3.7%). From the total of prescription glasses provided, 137 were for the correction of presbyopia (75.69%). It should be considered that presbyopia is the most common spectacle requirement in low-income regions, and the unmet need for presbyopic spectacles in these regions is very high (Sherwin et al. 2008). In conclusion, the main cause of visual impairment is the presence of refractive error followed by cataract. Both causes are avoidable with a correct clinical management. This suggests that there is still a need of implementation of the eye care service in this region in spite of existing lower rates of visual impairment in comparison with other African countries. We thank the MATH-Kenya (Embracing the World) for their support in the campaign.

For sustainable cities, Africa needs planning Interview: Joan Clos, executive director of UN-Habitat, visiting the Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya

Africa’s cities are growing very rapidly. By 2009 some 395 million Africans — nearly 40 per cent of the continent’s population — lived in urban areas. That number is projected to triple to more than 1.2 billion, or 60 per cent of all Africans, by 2050. For the United Nations Human Settlements Programme — known as UN-Habitat — that growth represents a dual challenge: helping Africans to better harness the productive potential of their cities, but also to cope with the increased demands for municipal services and decent housing, so that more and more people are not obliged to crowd into impoverished slum areas. Joan Clos, a former mayor of Barcelona, Spain, and since 2010 the executive director of UN-Habitat, believes that tackling those challenges will above all require more systematic urban planning. Africa Renewal’s managing editor, Ernest Harsch, spoke with him at UN-Habitat’s headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya.

Impact of international donors’ new policy agenda on project collaboration between community-based women organizations and NGOs in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya

This article first describes the New Policy Agenda (NPA), a market-based ideology influencing donor agencies’ strategies for international development. The article then continues to discuss how community-based women organizations (CBWOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) evaluate their collaborations or ‘partnerships’ in practice in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya. We tested the research hypothesis that the NPA reduces the likelihood of achieving equitable partnerships because of its insistence on ‘contracting’ partners, i.e. creating a patron-client relationship. This was carried out through qualitative research consisting mainly of semi-structured interviews and participatory observation with NGOs and CBWO representatives working in Kibera. Research results show that the contract conditions for CBWOs to enter into a partnership may reduce the chances of the most vulnerable groups in society of obtaining assistance. This ‘contracting’ relationship may also cause a loss of CBWO members’ motivation. The NPA and its emphasis on saving time and money also has a negative impact not only on the external development actors’ knowledge about the development context, but also on the multiple accountabilities in a CB WO-NGO partnership, on the quick-fix nature of the solutions applied to remedy the Jack of accountability and on the practical implementation of ‘participatory development’ in Kibera.

Impact of international donors’ new policy agenda on project collaboration between community-based women organizations and NGOs in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya

This article first describes the New Policy Agenda (NPA), af market-based ideology iniuencing donor agencies’ strategies for international development. The article then continues to discuss how community-based women organizations (CBWOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) evaluate their collaborations or ‘partnerships’ in practice in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya. We tested the research hypothesis that the NPA reduces the likelihood of achieving equitable partnerships because of its insistence on ‘contracting’ partners, i.e. creating a patron-client relationship. This was carried out through qualitative research consisting mainly of semi-structured interviews and participatory observation with NGOs and CBWO representatives working in Kibera. Research results show that the contract conditions for CBWOs to enter into a partnership may reduce the chances of the most vulnerable groups in society of obtaining assistance. This ‘contracting’ relationship may also cause a loss of CBWO members’ motivation. The NPA and its emphasis on saving time and money also has a negative impact not only on the external development actors’ knowledge about the development context, but also on the multiple accountabilities in a CBWO-NGO partnership, on the quick-fix nature of the solutions applied to remedy the lack of accountability and on the practical implementation of ‘participatory development’ in Kibera. Key words: development, donor relations, contract, participatory development

Chang’aa Drinking in Kibera Slum: The Harmful Effects of Contemporary Changes in the Production and Consumption of Traditional Spirits

This article examines the harmful effects of drinking chang’aa, an illegal spirit produced locally, in Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya. The negative impact of chang’aa on the community’s physical, social and economic life is traced, in part, to contemporary changes in consumption patterns as well as the production of chang’aa during the late 1990s. This article also analyzes the efforts of a local Catholic parish to launch a campaign to raise awareness on the dangers of chang’aa and to lobby the government to enforce its ban on the sale and use of the illicit brew. The parish was limited in its efforts primarily due to fears of violent reprisal by local government officials and chang’aa sellers who profited from the illegal, but lucrative trade. Key Words: Chang’aa, Kibera, Kenya, traditional drinks, spirits, alcohol

Civil society and the consolidation of democracy in Kenya: an analysis of a Catholic parish's efforts in Kibera slum

ABSTRACTThis article tests the theory of advocates who celebrate the potential of civil society to promote and deepen democracy in Africa, by examining whether the human rights ministry of a Catholic parish in Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya was able to consolidate democracy through a civic education programme during 2002–5. It concludes, from an analysis of the social, economic and political environment in Kibera, that parishioners who participated in the programme demonstrated an observable improvement in their democratic values and behaviour at a localised level within their own parish groups. However, civic education did not stimulate most participants to increase their involvement in advocacy and lobbying efforts to hold government officials to account for their abuse of power in Kibera. Parishioners were inhibited from promoting their rights primarily due to fears of violent retaliation by local government officials and politically sponsored youth wingers. Other factors such as apathy, ethnic divisions, limited resources and restrictive church protocols further curtailed parishioners' actions.

Management of Simulated Patients with Sexually Transmitted Infections by Staff of Retail Pharmacies in Kibera Slums Of Nairobi

To evaluate the treatment suggested to sexually transmitted infections (STI) self-medicating patients in retail pharmacies. A descriptive cross-sectional survey. Kibera slum, Nairobi City, Kenya. Staff of 50 convenient randomly selected retail pharmacies. The majority (97%) of the pharmacy staff who attended to self-medicating patients asked questions. Most of these questions centered around the onset of the stated symptoms, the health of the partner, patient's current health status and previous medications taken. Of the 99 staff evaluated, 60% correctly diagnosed gonorrhoea and 82% correctly diagnosed genital ulcer disease (GUD). Only nine out of fifty (18%) offered the recommended treatment for gonorrhoea and only one individual offered recommended treatment for GUD. The most commonly offered treatment for gonorrhoea and GUD was metronidazole and penicillin, respectively. Overall, only 10% correctly diagnosed both conditions and offered appropriate treatment. The staff also counselled patients on a wide range of issues including condom use, abstinence and being faithful, contact treatment, seeking prompt treatment and completing treatment. With only about 10% offering appropriate government recommended treatment for gonorrhoea and GUD, these pharmacy staff working in retail pharmacies in Kibera slum put slum dwellers seeking care at an increased risk of STI related morbidity and transmission due to inappropriate or inadequate treatment. To improve management of these conditions, in-service training and enforcement of the relevant legislation and policy is needed.

Barriers to utilisation of eye care services in Kibera slums of Nairobi

To identify the main barriers to utilisation of eye care services among the slum population of Kibera in Nairobi, Kenya. Community based survey. Kibera slums, Nairobi City, Kenya. Randomly selected 1,438 Kibera slum dwellers aged over two years. Majority of subjects (83.3%) do not utilise the nearby well-established eye clinics. Twenty one percent of those with poor vision do not seek treatment at all. The main barriers to seeking eye care services were lack of money, ignorance and the problem not causing much discomfort to warrant medical attention. There was significant, association between the level of education and health seeking behaviour (P = 0.008). Majority of Kibera slum dwellers have no access to eye care. There is need to establish a comprehensive primary eye care project to provide low cost but quality services affordable to Kibera slum dwellers.