Kg Of Wheat Research Articles

Increasing the Oxygen Consumption in Hermetic Grain Storage Using Grain Weevils (Sitophilus granarius)

Loss of stored plant products due to insect infestation is a problem that is likely to increase with global warming. Improved storage under hermetic conditions in oxygen deficiency can prevent or control infestation and preserve product quality. Oxygen levels in hermetic storage decrease due to different factors, one of which is the oxygen consumption of the insects present. Experiments were carried out using varying numbers (25, 50, or 200) of all developmental stages of the grain weevil Sitophilus granarius L. (eggs, larvae, pupae, and adult beetles) caged and placed in sealed 30-L containers containing 22 kg of wheat for at least 21 weeks. Oxygen levels were measured at regular intervals. The oxygen consumption depended on the number of insects and went below the critical threshold of 3% for S. granarius survival in most of the trials. Some surviving beetles were observed at the end of the hermetic experiments and 12 weeks afterwards during control for progeny, when oxygen levels did not fall below the critical threshold or the low level could not be maintained for a sufficient time. Monitoring oxygen levels in hermetic storage is therefore essential to ensure safe storage over long periods.

The Innate Rates of Increase in Two Common Stored Grain Insects under Different Grain Storage Conditions and Times.

The determination of innate rate of increase (r) values under different grain storage conditions is critical for insect population predictions. The r values for Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) and Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) were calculated by using a new suggested method (continuous time analysis) and data from the literature, and these calculated r values were compared to identify the r values and carrying capacities under real grain storage conditions and times. The insects were reared in small glass vials (0.3 kg wheat), small PVC columns (2 kg wheat), large PVC columns (14 kg wheat), and shallow containers (14 kg wheat or wheat + cracked wheat). The wheat or cracked wheat had 13.8 to 14.5% moisture contents at different constant temperatures (17.5 to 42.5 °C) and fluctuating temperatures. The r values at the beginning of the population were the highest. Before r became negative, it gradually decreased with increasing time. After the r value became negative, it sometimes increased to positive; however, the rebounded r was much less than the initial r and gradually tended to stabilize within an up-and-down range. This up-and-down r was related to the carrying capacity. The larger the grain bulk, the higher the innate rate was for both species. The r values associated with 14 kg of wheat could be used to predict the insect population dynamics in stored grain bins.

How the ongoing armed conflict between Russia and Ukraine can affect the global wheat food security?

Introduction: This study examines the potential impacts of Russia-Ukraine armed conflict on the consumption and trade of wheat and wheat food security. Russia and Ukraine jointly supply more than one-fourth of total wheat in the international market. Because of the ongoing armed conflict between Russia and Ukraine, wheat export from these two countries is heavily disrupted. Applying an ex-ante impact assessment procedure, this study examines the potential impacts of Russia-Ukraine armed conflict on the consumption and trade of wheat and wheat food security.Methods: This study considered 115 countries and grouped them based on their geographic location. The sampled countries are grouped as: South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, North Africa, Middle East, and rest of the world. Simulation results are presented by the geographic location of the sampled countries. To assess the potential impacts of the ongoing Ukraine-Russia armed conflict on wheat food security in the sampled countries, this study mainly sourced data from FAOSTAT. This study first calculates the share of wheat consumption imported from Russia and Ukraine. Then, this study calculates the daily total calorie and protein intake exclusively from the imported wheat from Russia and Ukraine in the sampled countries by their groups. It is found that 1 kg of wheat provides roughly 2,839–2,965 kilocalories (kcal) of energy, and between 81 and 88 g (gm) of protein, in the sampled countries. Using the conversion factors, this study assesses the impacts of a reduction of wheat exports in the global market due to the ongoing armed conflict between Russia and Ukraine applying an ex-ante assessment process. Specifically, this study assumes a 100% and 50% reduction in wheat exports by Russia and Ukraine, and then estimates its impact on daily calorie and protein intake in the sampled countries.Results: The ex-ante simulation shows that, under the assumption of a 100% reduction of wheat exports from Russia and Ukraine and assuming alternative wheat import sources are unavailable, yearly per capita wheat consumption would be reduced by 19% in South Asia, 57% in Sub-Saharan Africa, 26% in Southeast Asia, nearly 39% in Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, and 27% in other areas. Consequently, daily per capita calorie intake in South Asia would fall by more than 3%, in Sub-Saharan Africa by more than 6%, in Southeast Asia by 2.2%, in Central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa by 14%, and in the other countries of our study by 6.2%. A 50% reduction of wheat exports by Russia and Ukraine without substitute supplies of wheat grain would also substantially reduce wheat consumption as well as daily calorie and protein intakes from wheat, in the sampled countries.Discussions: Malnutrition and hunger are widespread in many countries of Asia and Africa that depend on wheat and other imported cereals to meet their rising food demand. Rising wheat prices, particularly in countries that rely on imported wheat, can lead to violence and social unrest, as occurred during 2007-11. Based on the findings, to avoid hunger and supply shock related disaster in the future, this study urges to search alternative sources of wheat for the import-dependent, resource-poor countries. Eventually, as there are few alternatives to increase wheat supply other than enhancing yield gain, this study strongly suggests for steady public funding for adaptive and basic research to harness genetic gains for yield and climatic adaptation in wheat. Also, in the long run, it is necessary to explore the possibility of wheat area expansion in the suitable countries. For example, a recent study confirmed the potentiality of wheat area expansion in Argentina and Brazil. Also, there is also a possibility of expansion of wheat area in Sub-Saharan African countries. Exploring opportunities for the expansion and sustainable intensification of wheat production in suitable countries can be instrumental to ensuring self-sufficiency in wheat supplies in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Economic and environmental comparison of conventional and conservation agriculture in South African wheat production

ABSTRACT Global wheat yields must increase to meet current and rising global demand despite the increasing threats to production resulting from climate change. One climate change adaptation strategy in wheat production in the Western Cape of South Africa is conservation agriculture (CA). Using a data set of 1,043 plot-level wheat observations collected at Langgewens and Tygerhoek research farms from 2002 to 2020, this study conducts a stepwise Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to estimate the environmental and economic impacts of switching from conventional wheat production to CA’s zero tillage (zero-till) and no-tillage (no-till) systems. The results indicate that CA is more profitable and has a higher environmental efficiency, than conventional tillage wheat production. In Langgewens, zero-till and no-till are respectively 113% and 55% more efficient than conventional tillage when comparing the environmental impact of producing one kg of wheat. Findings also suggest that, compared to 100% conventional tillage wheat production, the adoption of CA systems has led to reductions in environmental damage valued between R269.2 and R402.5 million in the Western Cape.

Fertilizer prescription for target yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum) in alluvial soils

Soil test crop response correlation studies were carried out to establish target yield prescription equations for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under the Integrated Plant Nutrition System (IPNS) at Research Farm of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab during 2019–2021. Fertilizer prescriptions under NPK alone and IPNS were developed for wheat crops using Ramamoorthy's “Inductive cum Targeted yield approach”. The amount of nutrients needed for producing 100 kg of wheat were 2.06, 0.78, and 1.95 kg/q of N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively. The nutrients contributed by soil and fertilizer were found to be 52.3% and 54% N, 11.7% and 50% P, and 20.2% and 20.6% K, respectively. Likewise, the organic material in the form of rice residue incorporation contributed 42.0% N, 15.3% P, and 26.0% K and increased the nutrient (N, P and K) uptake. The incorporated rice residue increased the soil organic carbon and microbial population substantially resulting in more mineralization thereby increasing nutrient availability. Therefore, the site-specific targeted yield-based approach used for developing fertilizer prescription equations gives a shred of strong evidence for maintaining soil health with higher crop yields and efficient nutrient management.

Environmental impact assessment of Finnish feed crop production with methodological comparison of PEF and IPCC methods for climate change impact

The impact of livestock production on the environment is already well acknowledged. When non-ruminants are considered, the major contributors to products' environmental impacts are related to feed crop production. Feed crop production sustainability is therefore especially relevant in addressing the sustainability and mitigation potential of non-ruminant production. Here, the climate change impact and water scarcity (WS) impact of the current Finnish feed crop production was assessed. The impact of methodological differences on the climate change impact of national-, regional-, and farm-level feed crop production were investigated for utilising the European Commission's Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) guidance and the guidelines provided by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).Feed crops selected for the assessment were considered as typical for Finnish pork and broiler chicken production, and included wheat (T. aestivum), oat (A. sativa), barley (H. vulgare), turnip rape (B. rapa ssp. oleifera), pea (P. sativum), and faba bean (V. faba). The farmgate climate change impact varied from turnip rape's 1.22 kg CO2 eq./kg to faba bean's 0.37 kg CO2 eq./kg, while cereals resulted in 0.47–0.63 kg CO2 eq./kg, and pea 0.49 kg CO2 eq./kg according to IPCC methods. Similarly, with PEF methods, the results varied from turnip rape's 1.18 kg CO2 eq./kg to 0.31 kg CO2 eq./kg of faba bean, cereals resulted in 0.42–0.58 kg CO2 eq./kg, and pea 0.43 kg CO2 eq./kg. The absolute difference between methods ranged between −0.045 and −0.068 kg CO2 eq./kg. The analysis showed that even if the relative error varied from 3% to 19% between methods, the relative order was the same, independent of the methods. The farmgate WS impact of Finnish feed crops was 0.23 m3 eq./kg for turnip rape, 0.05 m3 eq./kg for faba bean, 0.08 m3 eq./kg for barley, 0.08 m3 eq./kg for oat, 0.09 m3 eq./kg for wheat, and 0.06 m3 eq./kg for pea.It was observed that the PEF and IPCC methods functioned similarly in distinguishing better and worse performing crop production between cases. It was shown that the major contributors to feed crop production in Finland were energy and input production, N2O from N inputs, and peat soil degradation. The amount of N2O emissions from peat soil degradation especially demonstrated high variability and was therefore identified to have high mitigation potential. The investigation demonstrated the importance of including N2O emissions in the widest form when finding production hotspots.

Protective Effects of Systiva® Seed Treatment Fungicide for the Control of Winter Wheat Foliar Diseases Caused at Early Stages Due to Climate Change

Foliar fungal diseases are a serious threat to winter wheat production and climate change appears to favor pathogens associated with leaf blotch and tan spot symptoms in the Mediterranean area. The present work aimed to highlight these risks and propose appropriate disease management strategies by evaluating the seed treatment with the Systiva® (BASF) fungicide as a means to protect the crop against foliar fungal infections during the early growing stages. Towards that aim, plant tissue symptoms affected by the pathogens Pyrenophora tritici-repentis and Septoria spp. were systematically recorded in a study field in the region of Larissa, central Greece for three years (2016–2018), and the findings were associated with the monthly weather anomalies. Consequently, for the growing period of 2021–2022, a field experiment was established in the same disease prone field, comparing different doses of the seed treatment with Systiva® fungicide against leaf blotch and tan spot diseases. The evaluation was made by visual disease assessments, remote sensing with an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and metagenomics analysis. Parallel measurements on straw residues were also made to characterize the plant residues perithecia (pseudothecia). Visual leaf disease assessments and UAV remote sensing data showed that Systiva® treatments at doses of 125 cc and 150 cc per 100 kg of wheat seed can reduce the percentage of infected wheat plants caused by foliar fungal pathogens at wheat growth stages GS23-25 and GS30-31. Moreover, the metagenomics analyses performed on the microbial communities revealed that Systiva® can decrease the degree of infection by P. tritici-repentis and Z. tritici but do not provide sufficient protection against P. nodorum. Foliar diseases were influenced by the soil surface area covered with straw residue with a high proportion of natural inoculum (pseudothecia/ascospores).

The Impact of Climate-Smart Agriculture Technology on Productivity: Does Row Planting Matter? Evidence from Southern Ethiopia.

The impact of climate-friendly agricultural practices on rural household productivity is not well understood, and the available evidence is mainly qualitative. Therefore, this study investigated the impact of the introduction of Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices (CSA, i.e., row planting) on the productivity of improved wheat producers of rural farmer households in Misha Woreda, the southern region of Ethiopia. For this study, we used the data collected from 202 randomly selected wheat producers through a structured questionnaire. The data were analyzed using propensity score matching (PSM) and the generalized Roy model of the semiparametric local instrument variable (LIV) method. The results of the PSM estimation showed that wheat row planting has a positive and significant impact on productivity. The study found that farmers who sowed wheat in a row produced 1368 kg of wheat per hectare compared to the counterfactual scenario. To further validate whether this result is a pure effect of the row planting technique, we performed a covariate balance test that confirmed the insensitivity of the treatment effect estimates to unobserved selection bias. In addition, the Marginal Treatment Effect (MTE) model also showed that the marginal utility of row planting adoption increases the propensity of farmers to adapt climate-smart agriculture technologies. Therefore, by increasing the productivity of farm households, the expansion of technology will significantly contribute to farmers' resilience to the harmful effects of climate change and welfare.

Effects of Insect Density, Movement Period, and Temperature on Three-Dimensional Movement and Distribution of Adult Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae).

Knowledge on three-dimensional (3D) movement and distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) in grain bulks assists in the prediction of their distribution inside a bin. The following experiments were conducted to determine the 3D dispersal patterns of adult C. ferrugineus in wheat with 14.5% moisture content: 1) at various insect densities (0.35, 1.77 and 3.53 A/kg (adults/kg) at 20°C and in 24 h movement period; 2) in different movement periods (6, 24, and 72 h) at 20°C and 0.35 A/kg insect density; and 3) at different temperatures (20, 30 and 35°C) at 0.35 A/kg density in 24 h movement period. To create the densities of 0.35, 1.77, and 3.53 A/kg, 100, 500, and 1,000 adults were introduced in about 285 kg wheat, respectively. The 285 kg of wheat was kept in 343 mesh cubes, which in turn were packed in a wooden box. The introduced adults were counted at the end of the movement periods. Adult C. ferrugineus tended to move downward from the point of introduction, and then diffused throughout the grain bulk. The effects of insect densities, movement periods, and temperatures on the dispersion pattern of insects were similar in 1D columns, 2D chambers, and 3D grain bulk.

Modeling of Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) based on historical weather data indicates aeration is effective for management of wheat stored in Greece

An in-silico study was conducted to determine the feasibility of using aeration to manage Sitophilus oryzae (L.) in stored wheat throughout the country of Greece. Daily high and low temperature data were obtained for sixteen representative sites from 2010 to 2019 and averaged to predict hours below aeration temperature thresholds of 15, 18, and 21 °C from August–November. The sixteen sites were classified into distinct aeration zones based on temperature, which was associated with differences in latitude and elevation. In-silico predictions were developed for S. oryzae population growth in unaerated wheat, wheat aerated starting 15 July, and wheat aerated based on aeration triggering temperatures of 15, 18, and 21 °C. The optimal scenarios for inhibition of S. oryzae growth in wheat stored in the warmest Zone 1 is aeration triggered at 21 °C, but fumigations may be required in this zone. Aeration starting 15 July at 15 °C or aeration at 18 and 21 °C provides the best suppression of population growth for wheat stored in Zone 2, an intermediate climatic zone. For the coolest Zone 3, any aeration scenario is equally effective in suppressing S. oryzae. For all zones, predicted S. oryzae populations in unaerated wheat increase exponentially in late autumn to catastrophic levels, far exceeding the generally accepted level of 2 live adults per kg of wheat for export. The results presented herein can be used to develop aeration-based wheat management in Greece and may possibly lead to reduced reliance on fumigants for control of S. oryzae.

Control of Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in bags of wheat using solar radiation

Solar heating disinfestation is a promising technique for low-income farmers in developing countries. Solar disinfestation of Sitophilus oryzae in wheat was investigated using clear and black polyethylene plastic bags and woven bags. Different amounts of wheat (16, 21, and 25 kg) with 12.2% moisture content (wet basis) were tested under two field conditions: 1) wheat bags were kept at the field with no stacking or mixing; 2) wheat bags were mixed at the end of the day and stacked during the night. The experiment was conducted in Canada and Egypt. Degree-minutes and time above 40 °C for each treatment were also calculated. Wheat inside clear polyethylene bags heated up to a temperature range of 40–55 °C, which is considered lethal to many stored-grain insects, including S. oryzae. Mortality of adult S. oryzae was 67.6 ± 30% for clear plastic bags and 4.3 ± 0.8% for woven plastic bags. In general, degree-minutes and time above 40 °C inside 16 kg of wheat bags were significantly higher than bags with 21 or 25 kg of wheat.

Population dynamics of red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)) under different temperatures and patch sizes

Population dynamics of red flour beetles, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), was determined using three different sizes of grain patch (bulk) at different temperature profiles. Grain patches were 0.03 kg, 2 kg, and 14 kg of wheat with 14.5% moisture content (wb). The temperature profiles tested were constant temperatures of 21, 25, 30, 35 °C, and incrementally decreased or increased temperatures (T-decrease (Td) and T-increase (Ti)). Every 28 d up to 168 d, the live and dead adults were separated from the wheat and their numbers counted. At Td, adults were separated and counted every 28 d during the first 140 d, then one last time 70 d later. After separating and counting, these adults were discarded and the wheat, which contained immature stages, was incubated at 30 °C. Four weeks later the emerged adults (referred to as “offspring”) were counted. The number of both adults and offspring showed great variation among temperatures at the same storage time and the same patch size. The peak number and density of insects also showed variation among different temperatures and patch sizes. Peak live adult density was the highest in the small patches. The peak live adult densities were 300 ± 50 at 21 °C, 673 ± 118 at 25 °C, 689 ± 48 at 30 °C, 1100 ± 150 at 35 °C, 1150 ± 150 at Td, and 1133 ± 94 adults/kg at Ti. The offspring density at 35 °C was higher than that at other temperatures in the small patches. Even though many factors and their interaction influenced population dynamics of T. castaneum, the number of insects was mainly influenced by temperature at the same patch size, while large patch size could provide more room for insects to multiply.

Evaluations of the new deltamethrin-treated all-in-one hermetic bag for the control of the Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium (Everts)

The khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium (Everts), is a highly destructive stored product insect that presents a significant threat to stored bagged grain. Hermetic packaging is designed to maintain the quality and safety of stored grain, while continually protecting the grain from insect infestations during storage. The objective of this research was to evaluate a prototype deltamethrin, all-in-one treated hermetic bag on contact efficacy, larval mobility, and the control of T. granarium in artificially infested wheat. The insecticidal activity of the deltamethrin-treated packaging was tested against larvae and adults of T. granarium through contact bioassays. There was a significant reduction in responsive adults after 5 day and >86% of larvae were unresponsive after 9 d of exposure on the treated bag. Trogoderma granarium movement toward a food bait was <10% after a 24 h exposure on the treated bag compared to ~45% of larvae on untreated bag. Lots of 15 kg of wheat were artificially infested with 100 T. granarium larvae and placed inside treated and untreated storage bags, sealed, and stored in a semi-field warehouse, and observed after 2, 6, and 8-weeks for T. granarium survival and grain quality attributes. The weight and number of insect damaged kernels was lower across all storage intervals for grain held in the treated bags, as compared with control bags. Live adult T. granarium were observed at 2-weeks in treated and untreated bags, but there were no live adults observed after 8-weeks of storage in both bags. The new prototype hermetic bags maintained positive grain qualities, however more information on the hermetic parameters are needed to understand how some individuals survived.

Effects of Cultivating Rice and Wheat with and without Organic Fertilizer Application on Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Soil Quality in Khost, Afghanistan

The agricultural sector is the most important economic component in Afghanistan, as 80% of the population is involved. The improvement of cereal production is an urgent task to meet the nation’s demand for the staple within the limited arable land. To promote a sustainable crop production system, this study examined the soil quality to learn the basic knowledge of soil fertility and the environmental impact of different rice–wheat cropping systems in Khost, Afghanistan by using the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. The economic analysis of each farming system was conducted by the data gathered by the farmers’ interviews along with LCA data collection. The analysis considered the on-farm activities, which were required to produce 1 kg of wheat and rice. It included energy use, production, and farming inputs such as fertilizer and agrochemicals. Conventional farming with organic fertilizer application (CF+OF) was compared with conventional farming (CF). The LCA results showed the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emission was higher in rice production compared to wheat production. However, CO2 absorption by the crops was far greater than the total GHG emission in both systems and showed great potential for soil carbon sequestration for mitigation of global warming. The soil examination revealed the CF+OF system increased soil total carbon (TC), active C (AC), total N (TN), soil organic carbon storage (SCS), P, and K+ after four years of organic fertilizer application. The yield of each crop was slightly higher in the CF system; however, the CF+OF system increased net income by reducing the cost for fertilizer. The study concluded the CF+OF system can improve soil fertility in the long term while saving the farming operation cost. Further research is required to determine the best combination of practices to improve cattle manure characteristics and farm management for soil carbon sequestration to promote a sustainable farming system in the country.

Methane production enhancement and comparative study of biodegradation of some plants and animal wastes

This study investigated the production of methane using various substrates. Plantain peels, pig dung, poultry droppings, walnut peels/plantain peels and cow blood/wheat waste were all co-digested, charged in digesters (A-E) and allowed to ferment anaerobically for forty-five (45) days within the mesophilic temperature range of 20.0-39.0°. Digester A contained 3.9 Kg of wheat waste/cow blood and 19.5 Kg of water in the ratio of 1.5 which gave a total gas yield of 22.5 L of biogas; B contained 7.8 Kg of walnut peels/plantain peels and 15.6 Kg of water in the ratio 1:2 which gave a total gas yield of 115.0 L; C contained 8 Kg of plantain peels and 16 Kg of water which yielded 133.0 L of biogas; D contained 8 Kg of pig dung mixed thoroughly with 16 Kg of water which gave a total of 321.0 L; and E contained 8 Kg of poultry droppings mixed with 16 Kg of water which yielded 168.5 L of biogas. From the cumulative comparison of the biogas yields of the samples, pig dung gave the highest yield of 321 L and cow blood/wheat husk produced the lowest yield of 22.5 L. Pig dung (animal waste) gave the highest total viable count (TVC) of 7 × 106 cfu/mL. The sludge contains NPK which is a good biofertilizer.

Evaluation of the potential value of the F 1 H and F 2 H Diatomaceous earth formulations as grain protectants against Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae):

An insecticidal efficacy of two newly developed grain protectant formulations were assessed against lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) on wheat and corn after 6 months period of. Tested formulations, marked as F1H and F2H, based on inert dust, laurel leaves, lavender essential oil, corn oil, silica gel (both F1H and F2H) and pyrethrin (only F2H) were tested at six doses (from 100 ppm to 600 ppm) depending on formulation and type of grain. The appropriate weights of each formulation, were added seperately to plastic containers containing 10 kg of wheat or corn. An initial population of 200 adults of R. dominica were added into each container and left under natural environmental conditions for up to 6 months. A commercial diatomaceous earth (DE) insecticide, Celatom® Mn 51, was used for the comparison of the results, in addition to the untreated control. After six months, both formulations showed higher insecticidal effect than DE Mn 51 in corn and in wheat. Furthermore, the initial population of R. dominica, introduced in wheat was suppressed almost completely, with only 0.7%-5.3% live adults found, depending on formulations and dose. The order of efficacy was F1H>F2H>DE Mn 51. Similar suppression of the initial population was recorded in corn, where F2H was slightly more effective than F1H with 2.0%-10.6% and 4.1%-9.5% live adults found, respectively. At the same time, in the treatments with DE Mn 51 there were 4.7%-74.7% and 33.4%-56.1% live adults in wheat and corn, respectively.

Evaluation of the energy budget and energy use efficiency in wheat production under various crop management practices in China

Developing energy-saving and high-efficiency crop managements is required for food and energy security. Huang-Huai-Hai Plain produces more than 60% of the wheat in China. However, no published studies have investigated the energy budget of wheat production in this area. Using an input-output energy analysis from 2012 to 2014, we assessed energy flow of various managements. The average energy input and output ranged from 37.5 to 57.4 and 170.9–263.9 GJ ha−1, respectively. Compared with rainfed wheat (W1), irrigated wheat presented significantly higher energy inputs and outputs. Compared with farmers' practices (W2), optimized management based on soil water content (SWC) at depths of 0–20 (W3) and 0–40 cm (W4) reduced energy use; however, this reduction did not occur at soil depths of 0–60 cm (W5). Among four irrigated managements, W4 produced the highest energy output with the lowest energy input. Moreover, W4 presented the highest net energy, energy use efficiency, and energy productivity, which were 8.2%, 15.6%, and 14.9% higher than those presented by W2, respectively. The lowest specific energy in W4 indicated that the energy consumed to produce 1 kg of wheat can be substantially reduced via efficient water management. SWC-based water management had a significant positive effect on energy-related factors without sacrificing crop productivity.

AN ANALYTICAL ECONOMIC STUDY FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE MOST IMPORTANT GRAIN CROPS IN THE NEW VALLEY GOVERNORATE

Although the increase in the production of strategic crops in recentyears, this increase was not commensurate with the needs of the growingpopulation, the study relied on two main sources of data, the first data was aquestionnaire and the other was published secondary or unpublished data. forthe analysis of data and presentation of the results, the study used thedescriptive and quantitative methods.The study reached a number of conclusions and recommendations, themost important of which were:• The value of the production requirements in the sample center in the NewValley Governorate is estimated at about %4.6, %06, %%6 and %%426respectively, while the cost of agricultural work represented .%4%6, .86, ..4%6and %64%6 ; whereas the rent represented about 2.486, 2%426, 22486, 286,which is the highest percentage of total production costs per feddan,amounting to about .%0%, .%%%, .%%2 pounds / feddan respectively, for thestudy crops for the agricultural season %02%/%022.• The average productivity per feddan in the sample was %42%, %4%8, %422, 242%tons per feddan for wheat, barley, maize and peanut crops, respectively.• The value of the main output of feddan in the sample of wheat, barley, maizeand groundnut reached %%%2, .22%, %%%6, 86%2, representing 26426, 2%4.6,604%6 and 6.4.6 of the total yield of the same crops respectively, while thevalue of the secondary output amounted to 222%, %28,2%% pounds per feddan representing about %.4%6, 64.6, %4%6 of the total return of previous crops,respectively, for the agricultural season %02%/%022.• The average cost per ton amounted to 260642, 28%64%, 228242 and %8%848pounds of wheat, barley, maize and groundnut, respectively. Groundnutachieved the highest cost per ton, while the cost of corn was less expensive.• The average net yield of wheat, barley, maize and groundnut was 22%.,2.8842, %28%4% and %62% respectively. Wheat achieved the highest net returnwhile barley achieved the lowest return.• The average monthly revenue per feddan for wheat, barley, maize andgroundnut in the sample was about %%24%, %.8, .2242 and %6.4. poundsrespectively. Peanuts achieved the highest monthly net yield and barley thelowest monthly return.• The average yield on the pound invested in the production of wheat, barley,maize and peanuts in the sample of the study was about 8242, 2%, %24., .%4%piasters, where wheat achieved the highest investment, while barley achievedthe lowest return on investment.• The variable cost of the total costs was %%426, %86, 224%6 and 8%6 for wheat,barley, maize and goundnut, respectively. Wheat yield was the most efficientin using variable costs, while groundnut achieved less efficiency.• Agricultural sizes of 2% feddans and above achieved the highest economicefficiency per ton in reducing the production costs of the studied crops with asignificant effect at level 0402 for wheat, barley and groundnut of 040%, with64%%, %428 and 848% respectively, at significance level of o.o% for groundnut as"F" value reached (%2462).• Agricultural sizes of 2% feddans and above achieved the highest economicefficiency in reducing the production costs of the studied crops, with asignificant effect at level 0402 kg of wheat, barley and maize, with "F" valueof (2%2%4.., %%.8488 and %8%4%2) respectively, while there was a significanteffect at level 040% for ground as "F" reached P (%2462)• The agricultural holding category of 2% feddans and above achieved thehighest net yield of wheat and barley, with a significant effect at level 0402 forthe two crops, with a value of (2.24%2 and .%4%%) respectively, with asignificant effect level 040% for groundnut yield, , While the effect of themaize crop was not significant.• The percentage of the total area planted with grain under study in theGovernorate accounted for about %4%6, 84%6, %406, 24%6 of the total cultivatedarea of the Republic for wheat, barley, maize and groundnut respectively.• The area of wheat, barley, maize and groundnut cultivated in the new landsrepresented %4%6, 24.6, 2426, 8486 of the total cultivated area in theGovernorate respectively.

Mortality and movement of Cryptolestes ferrugineus and Rhyzopertha dominica in response to cooling in 300-kg grain bulks

We examined the effect of low temperatures on insect population density and mortality of adult and immature stages of Cryptolestes ferrugineus and Rhyzopertha dominica in three barrels holding 300 kg of wheat each. Barrels were infested with 2 insects/species/kg and left to develop at 30 °C for 5 months. Temperature of the grain mass before cooling was 38 °C in the centre to a low of 28 °C on the periphery. On 11 February the building door was opened to allow for cooling of the grain. During the 3 weeks of cooling, temperatures in the centre reached as low as −5 °C. Segregated (11 segments) grain trier samples were collected from three locations in each barrel, from February until March 2013 (6 dates), sieved, and the number of live and dead adults counted. Sieved grain was held for 5 weeks 30 °C and emerged adults counted to give an estimation of immature stages within the grain at the time of sampling. Rhyzopertha dominica adults were found mainly in the top 40 cm of the barrel, and there was little movement to the centre as the grain mass cooled. The initial distribution of C. ferrugineus adults was more complex; in two barrels adults were mostly in the centre of the grain mass, while in the other barrel, more adults were found on the periphery. When the grain mass cooled, C. ferrugineus adults in all barrels were found mostly in the centre. On day 0, the average number of live adults of C. ferrugineus and R. dominica were 232 ± 56 and 414 ± 48 insects/100 g, respectively. Rhyzopertha dominica adults were more susceptible to low temperatures than C. ferrugineus. The density of immatures of C. ferrugineus and R. dominica were similar at 0 d, there was a decline over the 21 d, but there was some survival at day 21.

Improving Efficacy of Beauveria bassiana against Stored Grain Beetles with a Synergistic Co-Formulant.

The potential of a dry powder co-formulant, kaolin, to improve the control of storage beetles by the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana, isolate IMI389521, was investigated. The response of Oryzaephilus surinamensis adults to the fungus when applied to wheat at 1 × 1010 conidia per kg with and without kaolin at 1.74 g per kg wheat was assessed. Addition of kaolin increased control from 46% to 88% at day 7 and from 81% to 99% at day 14 post-treatment. Following this the dose response of O. surinamensis and Tribolium confusum to both kaolin and the fungus was investigated. Synergistic effects were evident against O. surinamensis at ≥0.96 g of kaolin per kg of wheat when combined with the fungus at all concentrations tested. For T. confusum, adult mortality did not exceed 55%, however, the larvae were extremely susceptible with almost complete suppression of adult emergence at the lowest fungal rate tested even without the addition of kaolin. Finally, the dose response of Sitophilus granarius to the fungus at 15 and 25 °C, with and without kaolin at 1 g per kg of wheat, was examined. Improvements in efficacy were achieved by including kaolin at every fungal rate tested and by increasing the temperature. Kaolin by itself was not effective, only when combined with the fungus was an effect observed, indicating that kaolin was having a synergistic effect on the fungus.