Key Protected Wild Plant Research Articles

Analysis of the genetic diversity and population structure of Tilia amurensis from China using SSR markers: Implications for conservation

Tilia amurensis is a deciduous broad-leaved tree in the Malvaceae family. It is one of the second-class key protected wild plants in China. The evaluation of genetic polymorphisms of crucial protected species is necessary for conserving germplasm resources. In this study, 15 pairs of highly polymorphic SSR primers were used to analyse the genetic diversity of eight T. amurensis populations and the population structure of nine Tilia populations distributed in China. At the population level (Na = 6.050, Ne = 2.930, I = 1.123, HO = 0.485, HE = 0.523), there was a high level of genetic diversity. The AMOVA results showed that 12 % and 88 % of the total variation occurred among and within populations, respectively. The degree of genetic differentiation was moderate (FST = 0.124), and the level of gene flow was high (Nm = 1.763). The results of UPGMA cluster analysis, PCoA and structure analysis (ΔK = 2) revealed different degrees of gene introgression between the eight T. amurensis populations and Tilia japonica as the outgroup. These findings have important implications for formulating appropriate conservation strategies.

Potential habitat areas and priority protected areas of Tilia amurensis Rupr in China under the context of climate change.

Tilia amurensis Rupr (T. amurensis) is one endangered and national class II key protected wild plant in China. It has ornamental, material, economic, edible and medicinal values. At present, the resources of T. amurensis are decreasing, and the prediction of the distribution of its potential habitat in China can provide a theoretical basis for the cultivation and rational management of this species. In this study, the R language was used to evaluate 358 distribution records and 38 environment variables. The MaxEnt model was used to predict the potential distribution areas of T. amurensis under the current and future climate scenarios. The dominant environmental factors affecting the distribution of T. amurensis were analyzed and the Marxan model was used to plan the priority protected areas of this species. The results showed that Bio18, Slope, Elev, Bio1, Bio9 and Bio2 were the dominant environmental factors affecting the distribution of T. amurensis. Under the future climatic scenarios, the potential suitable areas for T. amurensis will mainly distribute in the Northeast China, the total suitable area will reduce compared with the current climate scenarios, and the general trend of the centroid of suitable habitat will be towards higher latitudes. The SPF value of the best plan obtained from the priority conservation area planning was 1.1, the BLM value was 127,616, and the priority conservation area was about 57.61×104 km2. The results suggested that climate, soil and topographic factors jointly affected the potential geographical distribution of T. amurensis, and climate and topographic factors had greater influence than soil factors. The total suitable area of T. amurensis in China under different climate scenarios in the future will decrease, so more effective protection should be actively adopted.

Reappraisal of the Identity of Batrachium pekinense (Ranunculaceae) and Its Implication for Biodiversity Conservation and Management

Because of human-induced habitat deterioration and climate change, a large number of species are threatened and even endangered. Batrachium pekinense Liang Liu, a perennial aquatic plant endemic to Beijing, was synonymized as a widely distributed species in Northern China, B. bungei Steudel, but it was later listed in the national key protected wild plants in China. Taxonomic uncertainty should be clarified especially when related species may be allocated with a limited conservation budget. In this study, we reappraised the identity of B. pekinense based on results from molecular phylogenetic analysis and 15-year field observations. Our result shows that 77% of the 65 individuals collected from various sites share identical sequences in both the nuclear ribosomal ITS and the plastid psbA-trnH markers, all samples of the two species consist of one monophyletic clade with strong support, and continuous morphological variations on the key distinguishing character, the leaf shape, are observed in the field. Integrative evidence from both our and the others’ studies supports the same identity for B. pekinense and B. bungei. Hence, we suggest excluding B. pekinense from the list of national key protected wild plants of China in its next update and advocate the integrative evidence-based taxonomy and systematics for biodiversity conservation and management.

Discovery of Natural Potent HMG-CoA Reductase Degraders for Lowering Cholesterol.

Exploitation of key protected wild plant resources makes great sense, but their limited populations become the major barrier. A particular strategy for breaking this barrier was inspired by the exploration of a resource-saving fungal endophyte Penicillium sp. DG23, which inhabits the key protected wild plant Schisandra macrocarpa. Chemical studies on the cultures of this strain afforded eight novel indole diterpenoids, schipenindolenes A-H (1-8), belonging to six diverse skeleton types. Importantly, semisyntheses suggested some key nonenzymatic reactions constructing these molecules and provided targeted compounds, in particular schipenindolene A (Spid A, 1) with low natural abundance. Remarkably, Spid A was the most potent HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR) degrader among the indole diterpenoid family. It degraded statin-induced accumulation of HMGCR protein, decreased cholesterol levels and acted synergistically with statin to further lower cholesterol. Mechanistically, transcriptomic and proteomic profiling suggested that Spid A potentially activated the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway to enhance the degradation of HMGCR, while simultaneously inhibiting the statin-activated expression of many key enzymes in the cholesterol and fatty acid synthesis pathways, thereby strengthening the efficacy of statins and potentially reducing the side effects of statins. Collectively, this study suggests the potential of Spid A for treating cardiovascular disease.

Discovery of Natural Potent HMG‐CoA Reductase Degraders for Lowering Cholesterol

AbstractExploitation of key protected wild plant resources makes great sense, but their limited populations become the major barrier. A particular strategy for breaking this barrier was inspired by the exploration of a resource‐saving fungal endophyte Penicillium sp. DG23, which inhabits the key protected wild plant Schisandra macrocarpa. Chemical studies on the cultures of this strain afforded eight novel indole diterpenoids, schipenindolenes A−H (1–8), belonging to six diverse skeleton types. Importantly, semisyntheses suggested some key nonenzymatic reactions constructing these molecules and provided targeted compounds, in particular schipenindolene A (Spid A, 1) with low natural abundance. Remarkably, Spid A was the most potent HMG‐CoA reductase (HMGCR) degrader among the indole diterpenoid family. It degraded statin‐induced accumulation of HMGCR protein, decreased cholesterol levels and acted synergistically with statin to further lower cholesterol. Mechanistically, transcriptomic and proteomic profiling suggested that Spid A potentially activated the endoplasmic reticulum‐associated degradation (ERAD) pathway to enhance the degradation of HMGCR, while simultaneously inhibiting the statin‐activated expression of many key enzymes in the cholesterol and fatty acid synthesis pathways, thereby strengthening the efficacy of statins and potentially reducing the side effects of statins. Collectively, this study suggests the potential of Spid A for treating cardiovascular disease.

Geographical distribution and conservation strategy of national key protected wild plants of China

National key protected wild plants (NKPWPs) are considered flagship species for plant diversity conservation in China. Using data for 1101 species, we characterized NKPWPs distribution patterns in China and assessed conservation effectiveness and conservation gaps. In total, 4880 grid cells at a 20×20km resolution were filled with occurrence records for NKPWPs. We identified 444 hotspot grid cells and 27 diversity hotspot regions, containing 92.37% of NKPWPs. However, 43.24% of these hotspot grid cells were fully or partially covered by national nature reserves (NNRs), where 70.21% of species were distributed. Approximately 61.49% of the NKPWPs species were protected by NNRs, but the populations or habitats of 963 species were partially or fully outside of NNRs. With global warming, the overall change in the extent of suitable habitats for NKPWPs is expected to be small, however, habitat quality in some areas with a high habitat suitability index will decrease.

Spatial–Temporal Distribution Pattern of Ormosia hosiei in Sichuan under Different Climate Scenarios

Ormosia hosiei is an endemic plant in China listed as a national grade II key protected wild plant with important scientific, economic, and cultural values. This study was designed to predict the potential suitable distribution areas for O. hosiei under current and future climate change and to provide a reference to enhance the species’ conservation and utilization. Based on the actual geographical locations of O. hosiei in Sichuan, we applied two species distribution models (BIOCLIM and DOMAIN) to predict its current and future potential suitable areas and future change patterns. We also analyzed the major climatic variables limiting its geographical distribution with principal component analysis. The results indicated that O. hosiei was mainly distributed in the eastern region of Sichuan and concentrated in the middle subtropical climate zone at relatively low elevations. The principal component analysis identified two critical factors representing temperature and moisture. The temperature was the most critical factor limiting O. hosiei distribution in Sichuan, especially the effect of extreme low temperatures. Both models’ simulation results of potential suitable areas under the current climate scenario showed that the excellent suitable habitat was consistent with the current actual distribution, remaining in the eastern region of Sichuan. Under the future climate scenario with doubled CO2 concentration (2100), both models predicted a sharp decrease in the areas of excellent and very high suitable habitats. The findings can inform strategies and guidelines for O. hosiei research, conservation, nursery production, and cultivation in Sichuan.

Checklist of national key protected wild plants on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is a global biodiversity hotspot due to the unique geographical environment. However, there are few reports on the list of national key protected plants and the distribution pattern of their diversity in this area. Based on the flora and online database, this paper summarised the species diversity and distribution patterns of national key protected wild plants on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The results showed that there were 350 species of national key protected wild plants on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, belonging to 72 families and 130 genera. Amongst them, 22 species were under class I protection, 328 species were under class II protection and 168 species were endemic to China. Its endangered status involves EW 1 species, CR 17 species, EN 90 species, VU 90 species, NT 30 species, LC 60 species and DD 62 species. Species diversity declined gradually from the southeast to the northwest with hotspots located within Sanjiang Valley subregion (ⅢE14a). The list of national key protected wild plants and their diversity and distribution patterns in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau can provide basic data for the conservation of regional biodiversity and the formulation of conservation strategies.

Effects of Different Irradiance Conditions on Photosynthetic Activity, Photosystem II, Rubisco Enzyme Activity, Chloroplast Ultrastructure, and Chloroplast-Related Gene Expression in Clematis tientaiensis Leaves

Clematis is a perennial ornamental vine known as the “Vine Queen” for its gorgeous floral color and rich flower shape. Clematis tientaiensis, an endangered plant, is a key protected wild plant and a rare breeding parent of Clematis because of its extremely high ornamental value. Light environment is one of the important environmental factors affecting the space distribution and the size of C. tientaiensis population. One-year-old homogenous and healthy potted C. tientaiensis plants were grown under four different light intensities (T1: 1800 ± 30/0 µmol m−2 s−1; T2: 1500 ± 30/0 µmol m−2 s−1; T3: 1200 ± 30/0 µmol m−2 s−1; T4: 900 ± 30/0 µmol m−2 s−1). This study analyzed the potential adaptive mechanism of C. tientaiensis in response to irradiance by investigating the photosynthesis, rapid light curve, chloroplast ultrastructure, Rubisco activase enzyme (RAC), Rubisco enzyme, amino acids, and gene expression under four irradiance treatments. High light caused the leaves chlorosis and yellowing, reduced the net photosynthetic rate (Pn), stomatal conductance (Gs), RAC and Rubisco enzyme activity; the quantum yield of unregulated energy dissipation [Y(NO)], and increased the content of eight amino acids content. The expression of psbA, psbB, psbC, and Psb(OEC) were down-regulated with decreasing irradiance. The results showed that C. tientaiensis plants grown under T1 (1800 ± 30 µmol m−2 s−1) irradiance were in danger of absorbing more light energy than they could use for photosynthesis, while they exhibited good adaptability to the T3 (1200 ± 30 µmol m−2 s−1) irradiance, and the PSII reaction center and Rubisco and RCA enzymes could be the key points in response to high light stress, which also emphasized the importance of appropriate light management practices for promoting the growth and population expansion of C. tientaiensis.

Geographic distribution, conservation effectiveness, and gaps for national key protected wild plants in China

AbstractNational key protected wild plants (NKPWPs) are species with important conservation value based on genetics, ecology, culture, and/or scientific research, which are also confronted with serious threats. However, their geographical distribution patterns and conservation status remain unclear. In this study, we compiled 1032 species of NKPWPs. We measured the diversity to identify hotspots of NKPWPs based on species richness, weighted range size rarity and a complementarity‐based analysis. Comparing the distribution and hotspots of NKPWPs with the coverage of Chinese nature reserves (NRs), we assessed conservation effectiveness and identified conservation gaps. The results identified 13 diversity hotspots; only 9.5% of them were covered by NRs with >30% of the grid cell area, and even 19.5% were not covered at all by NRs. Overall, 44.7% of NKPWPs were effectively protected by national NRs. Despite this success, 571 species in Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Chongqing, Guangxi, Guangdong, southern Hainan, Taiwan, and northern Xinjiang remain unprotected by NRs. The protected proportion of plants with first‐level protection was lower than that of plants with second‐level protection. The low overall proportion of protected hotspots indicates that the conservation outlook for NKPWPs is not optimistic. This study identifies priority conservation areas and conservation gaps and provides a scientific reference for the conservation of wild plants in China.

Taxonomic Uncertainty and Its Conservation Implications in Management, a Case from Pyrus hopeiensis (Rosaceae)

Improved taxonomies and phylogenies are essential for understanding the evolution of organisms, the development of conservation plans, and the allocation of funds and resources, especially for threatened species with uncertain identities. Pears are an economically and nutritionally important fruit, and wild pear species are highly valued and protected because of their utility for the development of cultivars. Pyrus hopeiensis is an endangered species endemic to North China, which is sympatric with and difficult to distinguish from the widely distributed and morphologically similar species P. ussuriensis. To clarify its taxonomic identity, principal coordinate analysis was performed using 14 quantitative and qualitative characters from P. hopeiensis, P. ussuriensis, and P. phaeocarpa, and phylogenomic analysis was performed based on whole-genome resequencing and whole plastome data. Pyrus hopeiensis was synonymized with P. ussuriensis based on morphological and phylogenetic evidence, as well as our long-term field studies. Pyrus hopeiensis is proposed to be excluded from the list of local key protected wild plants. Given that the holotype of P. ussuriensis was not designated, a lectotype was designated in this work. Integrative evidence-based taxonomic study including museomics is suggested for organisms with uncertain identities, which will contribute to biodiversity conservation.

Fortunella venosa (Champ. ex Benth.) C. C. Huang and F. hindsii (Champ. ex Benth.) Swingle as Independent Species: Evidence From Morphology and Molecular Systematics and Taxonomic Revision of Fortunella (Rutaceae).

Recently, the systematic status of Fortunella Swingle and its taxonomy has attracted much attention. Flora of China incorporates Fortunella into Citrus Linn. and treats all species of the traditional Fortunella as one species, namely Citrus japonica (Thunb.) Swingle. Furthermore, F. venosa (Champ. ex Benth.) C. C. Huang and F. hindsii (Champ. ex Benth.) Swingle are currently considered as synonyms of C. japonica. In this paper, morphological, palynological, and phylogenetic analyses were used to systematically explore the taxonomic status of traditional Fortunella. The key morphological features that differed among the Fortunella species were the leaf and the petiole hence could be key in its taxonomic classification of the species. Additionally, pollen morphological analysis based on the pollen size, germination grooves, polar, and equatorial axes also supported the separation of the species. The results of the phylogenetic analysis showed that each of the three species clustered separately, hence strongly supporting the conclusion of independent species. In addition, the phylogenetic analysis showed that the two genera clustered closely together hence our results support the incorporation of Fortunella into Citrus. Based on the above, this article has revised the classification of the traditional Fortunella and determined that this genus has three species, namely; F. venosa, F. hindsii, and F. japonica. F. venosa and F. hindsii are placed in the Citrus as separate species, and their species names still use the previous specific epithet. The revised scientific names of the new combinations of F. venosa and F. hindsii are as follows: Citrus venosa (Champ. ex Benth.) K. M. Liu, X. Z. Cai, and G. W. Hu, comb. nov. and Citrus hindsii (Champ. ex Benth.) K. M. Liu, G. W. Hu, and X. Z. Cai, comb. nov. F. venosa is the original species of Fortunella, F. venosa and F. hindsii are both listed as the second-class key protected wild plants in China. Therefore, the establishment of the taxonomic status of F. venosa and F. hindsii not only deepens our understanding, importance, and the complexity of the systematic classification of Fortunella, but is also significant for global biodiversity conservation, genetic resources for breeding purposes, and population genetics.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Zelkova schneideriana Hand-Mazz (Ulmaceae) and phylogenetic analysis

Zelkova schneideriana Hand-Mazz is a second-class key protected wild plant in China. Here, the complete mitochondrial genome of Zelkova schneideriana Hand-Mazz was sequenced using Nanopore Sequel and Illumina NovaSeq platform. The mitochondrial genome was assembled into three circular-mapping molecules with the genome sizes of 154,640 bp, 192,388 bp and 146,907 bp, including 36 protein-coding genes, 19 tRNA genes, and 3 rRNA genes. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that Zelkova schneideriana Hand-Mazz is close with Hemiptelea davidii, a species in same Ulmaceae Mirb.

Complete chloroplast genome sequence of an endangered plant Oreocharis cotinifolia (Gesneriaceae) from Guangxi, China

Oreocharis cotinifolia is a plant herb with a small population and narrow distribution range in southeast China. It is listed as one of the class 1 key protected wild plants in China and designated as a critically endangered species. In this study, we assembled the complete chloroplast genome of O. cotinifolia using data from high-throughput Illumina sequencing. The cp genome is 153,577 bp in length and includes two inverted repeats (IRs) of 25,292 bp, separated by a large single-copy region (LSC) and a small single-copy region (SSC) that are 84,898 bp and 18,095 bp, respectively. The GC content is 37.42%. The genome encodes 128 functional genes, including 87 protein-coding, 37 tRNA, and 4 rRNA genes. Maximum likelihood analysis showed that O. cotinifolia is closely related to the congeneric O. mileensis. The complete chloroplast genome will contribute to further studies on phylogeny and conservation of O. cotinifolia and related taxa in Oreocharis of Gesneriaceae.

Orchid conservation in China from 2000 to 2020: Achievements and perspectives

We review achievements in the conservation of orchid diversity in China over the last 21 years. We provide updated information on orchid biodiversity and suggestions for orchid conservation in China. We outline national policies of biodiversity conservation, especially of orchid conservation, which provide general guidelines for orchid conservation in China. There are now approximately 1708 known species of Orchidaceae in 181 genera in China, including five new genera and 365 new species described over the last 21 years. The assessment of risk of extinction of all 1502 known native orchid species in China in 2013 indicated that 653 species were identified as threatened, 132 species were treated as data-deficient, and four species endemic to China were classified as extinct. Approximately 1100 species (ca. 65%) are protected in national nature reserves, and another ~66 species in provincial nature reserves. About 800 native orchid species have living collections in major botanical gardens. The pollination biology of 74 native orchid species and the genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure of 29 orchid species have been investigated at a local scale and/or across species distributions. The mycorrhizal fungal community composition has been investigated in many genera, such as Bletilla, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, and Dendrobium. Approximately 292 species will be included in the list of national key protected wild plants this year. Two major tasks for near future include in situ conservation and monitoring population dynamics of endangered species.

The population status and threats of Taxus cuspidata, a plant species with extremely small populations in China

Taxus cuspidata Siebold et Zuccarini, one of the plant species with extremely small populations in China, is listed as a first-class national key protected wild plant that urgently needs to be rescued. However, there are different viewpoints on the population status of T. cuspidata. To elucidate the current actual population status of T. cuspidata, we conducted a systematic field survey in the distribution area of T. cuspidata in China, and analyzed the size structure, sex ratio, dynamics, and threat factors of T. cuspidata populations. Our results are as follows. (1) T. cuspidata was mainly distributed in Wangqing County, Helong City, Hunchun City of Jilin Province, and Muling City of Heilongjiang Province, while seldom distributed in Liaoning Province. T. cuspidata was distributed in the broad-leaved-conifer-Korean pine mixed forest in Northeast China, mostly as sporadic single individuals or scattered small populations. The highest density of adult individuals of T. cuspidata was 20 individuals/0.1 ha in DHZ, and the highest density of regeneration individuals was 28 individuals/0.1 ha in JGL. There was a significant exponential relationship (p < 0.05) and a serious polarization between the number of adult and regeneration individuals. (2) The T. cuspidata population showed an inverted J-shaped size structure, and its survival curve belonged to the Deevey Ⅲ, in which the number of surviving individuals decreased sharply from the sapling to the seventh size class. The ratio of females to males in the T. cuspidata population was 1:2.30, which was significantly different from 1:1 (p < 0.001). (3) Disturbance intensity was the primary environmental variable affecting the regeneration and adult individuals of T. cuspidata. Interestingly, disturbance factors together with habitat factors explained 41.6% and 59.8% of the variation in the number of regeneration and adult individuals respectively, and habitat factors (29.6%) had a greater independent effect than disturbance factors (17.3%) on regeneration individuals, whereas disturbance factors (16.0%) had a greater independent effect than habitat factors (12.5%) on adult individuals. Taken together, we highlighted that excessive disturbance directly resulted in the sharp decline in the population size and habitat area of T. cuspidata in China. Currently, T. cuspidata is endangered and faced with a high risk of local extinction in China. Therefore, we should continue to pay more attention to this species and we suggest that the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) could reconsider the threatened category of T. cuspidata.

Single-Molecule Real-Time Sequencing of the Madhuca pasquieri (Dubard) Lam. Transcriptome Reveals the Diversity of Full-Length Transcripts

Madhuca pasquieri (Dubard) Lam. is a tree on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List and a national key protected wild plant (II) of China, known for its seed oil and timber. However, lacking of genomic and transcriptome data for this species hampers study of its reproduction, utilization, and conservation. Here, single-molecule long-read sequencing (PacBio) and next-generation sequencing (Illumina) were combined to obtain the transcriptome from five developmental stages of M. pasquieri. Overall, 25,339 transcript isoforms were detected by PacBio, including 24,492 coding sequences (CDSs), 9440 simple sequence repeats (SSRs), 149 long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and 182 alternative splicing (AS) events, a majority was retained intron (RI). A further 1058 transcripts were identified as transcriptional factors (TFs) from 51 TF families. PacBio recovered more full-length transcript isoforms with a longer length, and a higher expression level, whereas larger number of transcripts (124,405) was captured in de novo from Illumina. Using Nr, Swissprot, KOG, and KEGG databases, 24,405 transcripts (96.31%) were annotated by PacBio. Functional annotation revealed a role for the auxin, abscisic acid, gibberellin, and cytokinine metabolic pathways in seed germination and post-germination. These findings support further studies on seed germination mechanism and genome of M. pasquieri, and better protection of this endangered species.

Characterization of the complete chloroplast genome of Citrus hongheensis, a key protected wild plant in Yunnan province of China

Citrus hongheensis is a key protected wild plant endemic to the Honghe river region in southeastern Yunnan, China. In the present study, its chloroplast genome was successfully assembled and annotated based on the Illumina Hiseq-2500 whole genome re-sequencing data. The chloroplast genome is 160,275 bp in size. Its large single copy region, small single copy region and inverted repeat region is 87,886 bp, 18,387 bp and 27,001 bp, respectively. Totally, 114 unique genes, including 80 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNAs and 4 rRNAs, were identified from the C. hongheensis chloroplast genome. According to the phylogenetic analysis result, the relationship between the chloroplast genome of C. hongheensis and C. maxima was found to be the closest.

Status and management strategy for rare and endangered key protected wild plants in the Luoxiao Mountains

Status and management strategy for rare and endangered key protected wild plants in the Luoxiao Mountains

Characterization of the complete chloroplast genome sequence of Hemsleya zhejiangensis (cucurbitaceae), a rare and endangered wild plant species in Zhejiang province, China

Hemsleya zhejiangensis is a rare and endangered plant species which is listed as a key protected wild plant in Zhejiang province, China. In our present study, we assembled the complete chloroplast (CP) genome of H. zhejiangensis using high-throughput sequencing data. The whole genome sequence of H. zhejiangensis is 157,289 bp in size, with a GC content of 37.1%. Sequencing analyses reveal that the CP genome encodes 133 genes, including 84 protein-coding genes, 8 rRNA genes, 37 tRNA genes, and four pseudogenes. Phylogenetic analysis results indicate that H. zhejiangensis is clustered with H. lijiangensis, with a support value of 100%, and they are sister to the three Gynostemma species.