Ketamine Diazepam Research Articles

Evaluation of anaesthetic and analgesic effects of ketamine-diazepam and ketamine-xylazine for chemical restraint in grower pigs undergoing surgical castration.

Pain response during pig handling is aggravated due to difficulty in restraining them for surgical procedure and thus gives rise to more welfare concerns. This study evaluated the comparative advantage of either combination of ketamine/xylazine (KX) or Ketamine/diazepam (KD) for surgical castration in pigs. Ten client-owned grower pigs, scheduled for orchidectomy were randomly assigned to two treatment groups containing five pigs were used for the study. Group 1 were anaesthetized with simultaneous intramuscular injection of 0.3 mg/kg diazepam and 10 mg/kg ketamine while group 2 were simultaneously injected with 2mg/kg Xylazine and 10 mg/kg ketamine, intramuscularly. Orchidectomy was thereafter performed on each pig using standard procedures. Cardiopulmonary parameters and anaesthetic indices were measured before and after anaesthetic induction. Castration was successfully done in all the grower pigs and the recovery from anaesthesia was uneventful. There was no significant change in all the cardiopulmonary parameters measured throughout the procedure. Also there was no significant difference (P>0.05) in respiratory rate, heart rate and body temperature between the two groups. There was faster but insignificant(p=0.15) loss of righting reflex in pigs in group KX compared to KD group. Also, the induction time, time of standing and duration of surgery was faster in KX group than KD group although not statistically significant. Following skin incision, all the pigs in the KD and non in KX group were found to require subcutaneous lidocaine inflitration. Ketamine-Xylazine combination provided better anaesthesia and analgesia sufficient for a 30 minutes surgical procedure like castration in grower pigs.

Reliability and Validity of UNESP-Botucatu Cattle Pain Scale and Cow Pain Scale in Bos taurus and Bos indicus Bulls to Assess Postoperative Pain of Surgical Orchiectomy.

Ten Nelore and nine Angus bulls were anaesthetised with xylazine-ketamine-diazepam-isoflurane-flunixin meglumine. Three-minute videos were recorded at -48 h, preoperative, after surgery, after rescue analgesia and at 24 h. Two evaluators assessed 95 randomised videos twice one month apart. There were no significant differences in the pain scores between breeds. Intra and inter-rater reliability varied from good (>0.70) to very good (>0.81) for all scales. The criterion validity showed a strong correlation (0.76-0.78) between the numerical rating scale and VAS versus UCAPS and CPS, and between UCAPS and CPS (0.76). The UCAPS and CPS were responsive; all items and total scores increased after surgery. Both scales were specific (81-85%) and sensitive (82-87%). The cut-off point for rescue analgesia was >4 for UCAPS and >3 for CPS. The UCAPS and CPS are valid and reliable to assess postoperative pain in Bos taurus and Bos indicus bulls.

Comparative Clinical and Serum Biochemical Evaluation of Two Intramuscular Anaesthetic Combinations (Diazepam/Ketamine and Diazepam/Fentanyl/Ketamine) in Rabbits

The research has been conducted to find the clinical efficacy and safety of preanaesthetics and induction agents based on clinical and serum biochemical indicators in rabbits. Eight healthy rabbits (3.0-3.5kg) of either sex were arbitrarily allocated into two groups: Group DK (diazepam-ketamine) and Group DFK (diazepam-fentanyl-ketamine). Rabbits were received intramuscular diazepam (5mg/kg), fentanyl (0.02 mg/kg) and ketamine (35 mg/kg). Data on clinical parameters (rectal temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate) and reflexes (righting reflex, palpebral reflex, and pedal reflex) were evaluated before and at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100 minutes after injection of anaesthetics. Blood samples were aspirated before anaesthesia and 30 minutes following induction. Serum Albumin, Globulin, Cholesterol, Triglyceride, Total Protein, High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL), Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL), Creatinine, Calcium, Phosphorus, Sodium, Potassium, and Chlorine were evaluated through a semiautomatic biochemistry analyzer. In this study, no significant changes in rectal temperature were observed in the animals of group DK during anaesthesia. During anaesthetic cascade, heart rates and respiration rates in both the groups were reduced significantly (P< 0.05). In DFK-injected rabbits, the return of righting and palpebral reflexes were delayed. The DFK groups had considerably (P< 0.05) longer surgical anaesthesia than the DK groups. In terms of serum biochemistry, DK-treated rabbits had significantly lower total protein, globulin, creatinine, HDL, sodium, and potassium concentrations (P< 0.05). Total protein, cholesterol, HDL, and potassium levels decreased significantly (P<0.05) after DFK treatment. The DFK combination offered appropriate anaesthesia for rabbits, as evidenced by a prolonged anaesthetic time, acceptable cardiopulmonary and other clinical indices, and moderate changes in serum biochemical profiles.

Comparison of Anesthetic Efficacy of Intranasal Administration of Medetomidine / Ketamine and Diazepam / Ketamine Combinations on New Zealand White Rabbits

This study aimed to determine the anesthetic efficacy of intranasal medetomidine/ketamine and diazepam/ketamine combinations in New Zealand White rabbits. For this purpose, 12 adult New Zealand White rabbits weighing 2.3‐4.1 kg were used by randomly dividing the animals into two groups of six animals: Medetomidine ‐ Ketamine (MK) and Diazepam ‐ Ketamine (DK). Intranasally, medetomidine (0.2 mg kg‐1) and ketamine (10 mg kg‐1) combination was administered to the MK group and, diazepam (1 mg kg‐1) and ketamine (10 mg kg‐1) to the DK group. Before and 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, and 60 minutes after anesthesia, loss, and recovery of the reflexes were evaluated. Onset and duration of the anesthesia, duration of the surgical anesthesia, and the total anesthesia time were also recorded. Loss and recovery time of reflexes was shorter in the DK group compared to the MK group. Respiratory rate, heart rate, and SpO2 decreased as expected in both groups but all parameters, especially SpO2, were lower in the MK group comparing the DK group. These results showed that both MK and DK combinations administered IN provide anesthesia in the time and depth that minor surgical procedures and clinical applications could be performed. Although it seems promising considering its practicality and anesthetic efficacy, it is clear that more detailed studies with more animals are needed before the safety of these protocols can be established.Their use, recommended for routine clinical procedures when considered SpO2, was severely decreased, especially in the MK group.

Evaluation of the perioperative stress response from dexmedetomidine infusion alone, with butorphanol bolus or remifentanil infusion compared with ketamine and morphine infusions in isoflurane-anesthetized horses

ObjectiveTo evaluate perioperative stress-related hormones in isoflurane-anesthetized horses administered infusions of dexmedetomidine alone or with butorphanol or remifentanil, compared with ketamine–morphine. Study designRandomized, prospective, nonblinded clinical study. AnimalsA total of 51 horses undergoing elective surgical procedures. MethodsHorses were premedicated with xylazine, anesthesia induced with ketamine–diazepam and maintained with isoflurane and one of four intravenous infusions. Partial intravenous anesthesia (PIVA) was achieved with dexmedetomidine (1.0 μg kg–1 hour–1; group D; 12 horses); dexmedetomidine (1.0 μg kg–1 hour–1) and butorphanol bolus (0.05 mg kg–1; group DB; 13 horses); dexmedetomidine (1.0 μg kg–1 hour–1) and remifentanil (3.0 μg kg–1 hour–1; group DR; 13 horses); or ketamine (0.6 mg kg–1 hour–1) and morphine (0.15 mg kg–1, 0.1 mg kg–1 hour–1; group KM; 13 horses). Infusions were started postinduction; butorphanol bolus was administered 10 minutes before starting surgery. Blood was collected before drugs were administered (baseline), 10 minutes after ketamine–diazepam, every 30 minutes during surgery and 1 hour after standing. Mean arterial pressure (MAP), pulse rate, end-tidal isoflurane concentration, cortisol, nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), glucose and insulin concentrations were compared using linear mixed models. Significance was assumed when p < 0.05. ResultsWithin D, cortisol was lower at 120–180 minutes from starting surgery compared with baseline. Cortisol was higher in KM than in D at 60 minutes from starting surgery. Within all groups, glucose was higher postinduction (except DR) and 60 minutes from starting surgery, and insulin was lower during anesthesia and higher after standing compared with baseline. After standing, NEFA were higher in KM than in DB. In KM, MAP increased at 40–60 minutes from starting surgery compared with 30 minutes postinduction. Conclusions and clinical relevanceDexmedetomidine suppressed cortisol release more than dexmedetomidine–opioid and ketamine–morphine infusions. Ketamine–morphine PIVA might increase catecholamine activity.

Plasma histamine concentrations in horses administered sodium penicillin, guaifenesin–xylazine–ketamine and isoflurane with morphine or butorphanol

ObjectiveVarious drugs administered to horses undergoing surgical procedures can release histamine. Histamine concentrations were evaluated in horses prepared for surgery and administered butorphanol or morphine intraoperative infusions. Study designProspective studies with one randomized. AnimalsA total of 44 client-owned horses. MethodsIn one study, anesthesia was induced with xylazine followed by ketamine–diazepam. Anesthesia was maintained with guaifenesin–xylazine–ketamine (GXK) during surgical preparation. For surgery, isoflurane was administered with intravenous (IV) morphine (group M: 0.15 mg kg–1 and 0.1 mg kg–1 hour–1; 15 horses) or butorphanol (group B: 0.05 mg kg–1 and 0.01 mg kg–1 hour–1; 15 horses). Histamine and morphine concentrations were measured using enzyme-linked immunoassay before opioid injection (time 0), and after 1, 2, 5, 30, 60 and 90 minutes. In a subsequent study, plasma histamine concentrations were measured in 14 horses before drug administration (baseline), 15 minutes after IV sodium penicillin and 15 minutes after starting GXK IV infusion. Statistical comparison was performed using anova for repeated measures. Pearson correlation compared morphine and histamine concentrations. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Significance was assumed when p ≤ 0.05. ResultsWith histamine, differences occurred between baseline (3.2 ± 2.4 ng mL–1) and GXK (5.2 ± 7.1 ng mL–1) and between baseline and time 0 in group B (11.9 ± 13.4 ng mL–1) and group M (11.1 ± 12.4 ng mL–1). No differences occurred between baseline and after penicillin or between groups M and B. Morphine concentrations were higher at 1 minute following injection (8.1 ± 5.1 ng mL–1) than at 30 minutes (4.9 ± 3.1 ng mL–1) and 60 minutes (4.0 ± 2.5 ng mL–1). Histamine correlated with morphine at 2, 30 and 60 minutes. Conclusions and clinical relevanceGXK increased histamine concentration, but concentrations were similar with morphine and butorphanol.

Evaluation of diazepam-ketamine combination for immobilization of African land tortoise (&lt;i&gt;Testudo graeca&lt;/i&gt;)

Zoo and wildlife practitioners are constantly exposed to persistent dangers during physical restraint of wild animals. Chemical immobilization in reptiles is unpredictable due to their ectothermic nature. This study aims to determine a safe and effective anesthetic protocol for immobilization in chelonians and other reptiles. Varied doses of diazepam ketamine combinations were administered and evaluated in 16 healthy land tortoises ( Testudo graeca ). The tortoises were divided into four groups (4 per group) labeled DK-1 through DK-4. DK-1 had a combination of 44mg/kg of ketamine with 0.25mg/kg of diazepam. DK-2 had 22mg/kg of ketamine with 0.25mg/kg of diazepam. DK-3 had 44mg/kg of ketamine with 0.5mg/kg diazepam while DK-4 had 22mg/kg of ketamine with 0.5mg/kg of diazepam. Anesthetic effects were monitored to determine the duration required for partial extension of the head and limbs, full extension of limbs, and complete recovery from anesthesia. These visual inspection of partial recovery and full extension were adapted as surface and deep anaesthesia respectively in describing the depth of anaesthesia. All the time intervals were recorded in minutes, and summarized as mean and standard deviation. ANOVA was used to test for significance across the groups. Full extension of head and limbs was achieved within mean periods of 10, 15.5 and 13 minutes in DK-1, DK-3 and DK-4 respectively. Tortoises in DK-2, which were only sedated, demonstrated only surface depth of anaesthesia. Complete recovery occurred in mean periods of 128, 25, 158 (p < 0.05) and 132 minutes for groups DK-1, DK-2, DK-3, and DK-4 respectively. Diazepam-Ketamine anaesthetic cocktail provides a safe protocol for chemical restraint in tortoises. A higher dose of diazepam produced a longer duration of complete recovery. Keywords : Anaesthesia, Diazepam, Immobilization, Ketamine, Testudo graeca

Evaluation of a pinhole castration technique in ponies: Comparing single with double ligation (using silk or catgut) of the spermatic cord

SummaryThe objective of the study was to evaluate a pinhole castration technique in male ponies. Adult ponies (n = 12) were randomly allotted to one of the two equal groups. Both of the groups were anaesthetised with xylazine–ketamine–diazepam and had single (SLS, SLC) ligation of the spermatic cord on one side and double (DLS, DLC) ligation on the other side using silk (Group T1) and catgut (Group T2). Single ligation whether using silk or catgut (SLS and SLC) was completed in 3.50 ± 0.34 min. DLS took 6.66 ± 0.49 min and DLC 7.16 ± 0.47 min. Scrotal oedema was noticed in all of the ponies from Day 1 to Day 15. The scrotal circumference and testicular volume in animals of both of the groups showed a significant (P&lt;0.05) increase from Day 1 to Day 4. Orchiectomy to recover testicular remnants was performed in all of the animals on Day 41. Straw‐coloured fluid accumulation was noticed in seven testicular remnants (4 T1 and 3 T2). One testicle from Group DLS showed suppuration. Multiple gross and histological abnormalities were detected in all double ligated testes. The changes were more severe in the DLS than the DLC group and their epididymis (n = 3) also showed necrosis, fibroplasia and an obstructed lumen. Severe adhesions had developed in three and one testicle only from the SLS and SLC groups respectively. The remaining testes and epididymis in both of these groups showed only mild‐to‐moderate adhesions. From this study, it was concluded that castration may not be achieved by percutaneous single ligation of the spermatic cord in ponies. Although double ligation induces marked gross and histopathological changes, assessments of the testosterone levels and sperm analysis are required before recommending this procedure. Use of silk for ligation of the spermatic cord is advantageous over catgut but maintenance of strict asepsis is mandatory.

Comparison between the anaesthetic effects of xylazine–ketamine and diazepam–ketamine: physiological and blood parameters in young hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the anaesthetic effects on young hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) of xylazine-ketamine (XK) compared to diazepam-ketamine (DK). Six healthy young male hamadryas baboons were first premedicated with xylazine HCl (0.5 mg/kg, IM) and anaesthetised 20 min later with ketamine (10 mg/kg, IM). After a 10-day washout period, the hamadryas baboons were premedicated with diazepam (1 mg/kg, IM) and anaesthetised 20 min later with ketamine (10 mg/kg, IM). The onset, duration, and the depth of anaesthesia were determined by recording palpebral, corneal, and jaw reflexes. The results showed a significant decrease in heart rate and rectal temperature after XK injection, while a significant reduction in respiratory rate was seen when using the DK protocol. A highly significant increase in the levels of glucose was observed with the XK regimen. Blood pressure decreased when using both anaesthetic regimens, but this reduction did not reach significant levels. The quality of recovery was better when using XK compared to DK. In conclusion, major complications including bradycardia, hypothermia, and hyperglycaemia should be considered with a combination of XK. However, no complications other than bradypnea and hypercapnia should be expected when immobilising young hamadryas baboons with DK. No significant difference was observed in CBC, electrolytes, or lactate level between the anaesthesia protocols.

Effect of propofol and ketamine–diazepam on intraocular pressure in healthy premedicated dogs

Introduction: The objective of the present study was to determine how dexmedetomidine/hydromorphone followed by either propofol or ketamine/diazepam and isoflurane affects IOP in healthy dogs.

Measurement of intraocular pressure in healthy anesthetized horses during hoisting

ObjectiveTo measure intraocular pressure (IOP) in horses during hoisting after induction of anesthesia. Study designProspective nonrandomized clinical study. AnimalsEighteen healthy adult horses aged [mean±standard deviation (SD)] 10±4.2 years and weighing 491±110 kg anesthetized for elective procedures. MethodsIOP was measured in the superior eye of each horse based on planned recumbency after induction of anesthesia. Measurements were taken directly after premedication with xylazine or detomidine with butorphanol, after induction with diazepam–ketamine, after intubation, when suspended by the hoist and on the operating table. During hoisting, the head was supported and the eye–heart height was measured to account for variations in head positioning among patients. IOPs were compared across time points using repeated-measures analysis of variance. Regression was used to compare IOP outcome with potential cofactors. ResultsCompared with measurements after premedication (17.5±2.5 mmHg) (mean±SD), hoisting significantly increased IOP (32.4±15.3 mmHg) (p<0.01). The highest recorded IOP in the hoist was 80.0 (range, 16.0–80.0) mmHg. The difference in IOP between premedication and hoisting was 15.0±16.2 (range, –1.0 to 68.0) mmHg. Body weight had a significant effect on absolute IOP and change in IOP in the hoist (p<0.01). Conclusions and clinical relevanceHoist IOP was significantly higher than post-premedication IOP with heavier horses having higher hoist IOPs and greater increases in IOP. The clinician should take this relationship into account when anesthetizing and hoisting larger horses where an increase in IOP could be detrimental.

The effect of anesthetic drug choice on accuracy of high-definition oscillometry in laterally recumbent horses

ObjectiveTo determine the accuracy of high-definition oscillometry (HDO) for arterial pressure measurement during injectable or inhalation anesthesia in horses. Study designProspective, clinical study. AnimalsTwenty-four horses anesthetized for procedures requiring lateral recumbency. MethodsHorses were premedicated with xylazine, and anesthesia induced with diazepam–ketamine. Anesthesia was maintained with xylazine–ketamine–guaifenesin combination [TripleDrip (TD; n = 12) or isoflurane (ISO; n = 12)]. HDO was used to obtain systolic (SAP), mean (MAP) and diastolic (DAP) arterial pressures, and heart rate (HR) using an 8-cm-wide cuff around the proximal tail. Invasive blood pressure (IBP), SAP, MAP, DAP and HR were recorded during HDO cycling. Bland–Altman analysis for repeated measures was used to compare HDO and IBP for all measurements. The generalized additive model was used to determine if means in the differences between HDO and IBP were similar between anesthetic protocols for all measurements. ResultsThere were >110 paired samples for each variable. There was no effect of anesthetic choice on HDO performance, but more variability was present in TD compared with ISO. Skewed data required log-transformation for statistical comparison. Using raw data and standard Bland–Altman analysis, HDO overestimated SAP (TD, 3.8 ± 28.3 mmHg; ISO, 3.5 ± 13.6 mmHg), MAP (TD, 4.0 ± 23.3 mmHg; ISO, 6.3 ± 10.0 mmHg) and DAP (TD, 4.0 ± 21.2 mmHg; ISO, 7.8 ± 13.6 mmHg). In TD, 26–40% HDO measurements were within 10 mmHg of IBP, compared with 60–74% in ISO. Differences between HDO and IBP for all measurements were similar between anesthetic protocols. The numerical difference between IBP and HDO measurements for SAP, MAP and DAP significantly decreased as cuff width:tail girth ratio increased toward 40%. Conclusion and clinical relevanceMore variability in HDO occurred during TD. The cuff width:tail girth ratio is important for accuracy of HDO.

Total intravenous anaesthesia in adult mules

ObjectiveTo design an effective intravenous (IV) anaesthetic combination for field use in mules. Study designDescriptive study. AnimalsSix healthy adult mules. MethodsXylazine 1.3 mg kg−1 was administered IV and the quality of sedation was recorded. Anaesthesia was induced with 0.03 mg kg−1 diazepam and 2.2 mg kg−1 ketamine IV. Times to sternal recumbency, lateral recumbency and standing were recorded. Heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (fR), rectal temperature and haematological parameters were recorded at baseline and at 5, 15 and 45 minutes post-administration. Additionally, levels of antinociception according to responses to a pin prick test, and the quality of muscle relaxation and recovery were scored. ResultsTimes (mean ± standard deviation) to sternal and lateral recumbency were 1.3 ± 1.3 minutes and 1.8 ± 1.3 minutes, respectively, with hypertonicity of the pelvic limbs. Standing ataxia and normal gait were seen at 25.5 ± 19.0 minutes and 32.8 ± 7.9 minutes, respectively. Five minutes after induction of anaesthesia, the quality of antinociception was judged to be good to excellent (0 ± 1 on a scale of 0–3), muscle relaxation of the jaw incomplete (2 ± 1 on a scale of 1–4) and quality of recovery was very good to excellent (2 ± 1 on a scale of 1–5). The duration of anaesthesia was only 15.3 ± 1.6 minutes. Significant changes were observed only in HR at 15 minutes and fR at 5 minutes. Changes in rectal temperature and haematological parameters following anaesthesia were non-significant. Conclusions and clinical relevanceThe combination of xylazine–diazepam–ketamine provides effective short-term anaesthesia in mules under field conditions.

Effects of xylazine–ketamine–diazepam anesthesia on blood cell counts and plasma biochemical values in sheep and goats

To examine the effects of xylazine, ketamine, diazepam anesthesia on clinical pathology parameters in sheep and goats, seven adult, healthy, non-pregnant Awassi sheep weighing 40–60 kg and seven adult, healthy non-pregnant Damascus breed goats weighing 35 to 55 kg were used. Anesthesia was induced using 0.1 mg/kg xylazine, 5 mg/kg ketamine, and 0.25 mg/kg diazepam as a single intravenous injection. Blood cell counts and plasma biochemical analysis were performed before anesthesia (T0), 2 h after recovery, 24 h after recovery, and 5 days later. Hematological analysis indicated that there was a significant increase in neutrophil percentages (P ≤ 0.05) in sheep and goats at 2 h and 24 h after recovery. There was a mild lymphopenia and a significant leukocytosis at 24 h after recovery in both species. Packed cell volume was significantly increased at 24 h and at 2 h and 24 h after recovery in sheep and goats, respectively, while total red blood cell count was significantly decreased at 24 h after recovery in sheep and goats. There were no significant changes in hemoglobin, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, total protein, and albumin concentrations. Glucose was significantly elevated at 2 h after recovery in goats only. Aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase were not significantly changed at any sampling point. It is therefore concluded that a combination of xylazine, ketamine, and diazepam can be used to induce short term anesthesia in sheep and goats with minimum effects on clinical laboratory parameters.

Effect of xylazine–ketamine–diazepam anesthesia on certain clinical and arterial blood gas parameters in sheep and goats

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of xylazine–ketamine–diazepam anesthesia on heart rate, respiration rate, rectal temperature, rumen motility, peripheral blood pH, PaO2, and PaCO2 in adult female nonpregnant Awassi sheep and adult female nonpregnant Damascus goats. Anesthesia was induced using 0.1 mg/kg, 5 mg/kg, and 0.25 mg/kg xylazine, ketamine, and diazepam respectively as a single intravenous injection. The heart rate, respiration rate, rectal temperature, rumen motility, peripheral arterial blood pH, PaO2, and PaCO2 were evaluated 15 min before and at 15, 30, and 60 min during anesthesia. In sheep, the heart rate, rumen motility, and PaO2 were decreased significantly (P < 0.05) at 15, 30, and 60 min following anesthesia. The respiration rate and rectal temperature and blood pH were decreased significantly (P < 0.05) at 30 and 60 min. The peripheral PaCO2 was increased significantly (P < 0.05) at 15 and 30 min. In goats, the heart rate and rumen motility were decreased significantly (P < 0.05) at 15, 30, and 60 min while the respiration rate was decreased only significantly (P < 0.05) at 60 min. Rectal temperature was decreased significantly (P < 0.05) at 30 and 60 min. The blood pH was decreased significantly (P < 0.05) at 15 and 30 min. PaO2 was only significantly (P < 0.05) decreased at 15 min while PaCO2 was increased significantly (P < 0.05) at 15 and 30 min.

The cardiopulmonary effects of anesthetic induction with isoflurane, ketamine–diazepam or propofol–diazepam in the hypovolemic dog

ObjectiveTo evaluate and compare the cardiopulmonary effects of induction of anesthesia with isoflurane (Iso), ketamine–diazepam (KD), or propofol–diazepam (PD) in hypovolemic dogs. Study designProspective randomized cross–over trial. AnimalsSix healthy intact, mixed breed, female dogs weighing 20.7 ± 4.2 kg and aged 22 ± 2 months. MethodsDogs had 30 mL kg−1 of blood removed at a rate of 1.5 mL kg−1 minute−1 under isoflurane anesthesia. Following a 30–minute recovery period, anesthesia was reinduced. Dogs were assigned to one of three treatments: isoflurane via facemask using 0.5% incremental increases in the delivered concentration every 30 seconds, 1.25 mg kg−1 ketamine and 0.0625 mg kg−1 diazepam intravenously (IV) with doses repeated every 30 seconds as required, and 2 mg kg−1 propofol and 0.2 mg kg−1 diazepam IV followed by 1 mg kg−1 propofol increments IV every 30 seconds as required. Following endotracheal intubation all dogs received 1.7% end–tidal isoflurane in oxygen. Cardiopulmonary variables were recorded at baseline (before induction) and at 5 or 10 minute intervals following endotracheal intubation. ResultsInduction time was longer in Iso (4.98 ± 0.47 minutes) compared to KD (3.10 ± 0.47 minutes) or PD (3.22 ± 0.45 minutes). To produce anesthesia, KD received 4.9 ± 2.3 mg kg−1 ketamine and 0.24 ± 0.1 mg kg−1 diazepam, while PD received 2.2 ± 0.4 mg kg−1 propofol and 0.2 mg kg−1 diazepam. End–tidal isoflurane concentration immediately following intubation was 1.7 ± 0.4% in Iso. Arterial blood pressure and heart rate were significantly higher in KD and PD compared to Iso and in KD compared to PD. Arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure was significantly higher in PD compared to KD and Iso immediately after induction. Conclusions and clinical relevanceIn hypovolemic dogs, KD or PD, as used in this study to induce anesthesia, resulted in less hemodynamic depression compared to isoflurane.

The effects of anesthesia with a combination of intramuscular xylazine–diazepam–ketamine on heart rate, respiratory rate and cloacal temperature in roosters

ObjectiveTo examine the anesthetic effects of a xylazine-diazepam-ketamine (XDK) combination in roosters. Study designProspective experimental trial. AnimalsSix healthy white Leghorn roosters weighing 2.03 ± 0.08 kg. MethodsEach rooster was pre-medicated with xylazine (3 mg kg−1, IM) and after 15 minutes anesthesia was induced with a diazepam (4 mg kg−1) and ketamine (25 mg kg−1) combination injected into the pectoral muscles. Heart and respiratory rates were recorded before anesthesia and every 15 minutes after induction for 165 minutes. Cloacal temperature was measured before and 15 minutes after pre-medication and every 75 minutes thereafter during anesthesia. Quality of induction and recovery were scored subjectively; duration of loss of righting reflex, abolition of response to a painful stimulus and palpebral reflex were also recorded. ResultsIntramuscular injection of xylazine smoothly induced loss of the righting reflex within 3–4 minutes. Loss of response to a painful stimulus occurred at 13.1 ± 2.9 minutes (mean ± SD) after the administration of the D-K combination, and lasted for 63.0 ± 5.3 minutes. Roosters anesthetized with this combination had a significant decrease in heart and respiratory rates and cloacal temperature. The recovery period lasted for up to 4 hours (227.5 ± 15.4 minutes). Quality of recovery was satisfactory for four roosters but excitation was noted in two birds. Conclusions and clinical relevanceThe XDK combination was a useful anesthetic technique for typhlectomy in roosters. Nevertheless this drug combination should be used with caution and cardiopulmonary parameters monitored carefully. Under the conditions of this experiment it was associated with a decreased cloacal temperature and prolonged recoveries.

A combination of ketamine and diazepam synergistically controls refractory status epilepticus induced by cholinergic stimulation

New treatments are needed for status epilepticus (SE) that is refractory to drugs modulating GABA(A) receptors, and NMDA receptor antagonists are candidate drugs. Clinically available NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine was tested for effectiveness in terminating prolonged SE induced by a combination of lithium and pilocarpine. Animals were treated 10 min after first grade 5 behavioral seizure (Racine scoring scale) by intraperitoneal administration of ketamine, diazepam, or saline. Seizure termination was determined by electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings from the hippocampus and the cortex. Animals treated with normal saline or either 20 mg/kg diazepam, or 50 mg/kg ketamine continued in SE for the next 300 min. However, combined treatment with diazepam and ketamine rapidly terminated prolonged cholinergic stimulation-induced SE. Detailed study of dose response relationships demonstrated that diazepam enhanced efficacy and potency of ketamine in terminating SE. This study demonstrated synergistic action of diazepam and ketamine in terminating SE. It suggests that a ketamine-diazepam combination might be a clinically useful therapeutic option for the treatment of refractory SE.

Comparison of three Ketamine drug combinations for short term anaesthesia in West African Dwarf Goats

The anaesthetic qualities of single intravenous (IV) injection of Xylazine/Ketamine (XK) at a dose of 0.05/25mg/kg, acepromazine/ketamine (AK) at a dose of 0.05/25mg/kg and diazepam/ketamine (DK) at a dose of 0.5/25mg/kg were evaluated and compared in five non-fasted West African Dwarf (WAD) goats. The mean heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR) and rectal temperature (RT) were measured in the anaesthetized goats placed in lateral position. Surgical anaesthetic time, recumbency time, standing time and time to feeding were also calculated. The anaesthetized goats were observed for the presence or absence of the side effects of the drugs administered. The mean HR in the XK group was significantly (P0.05) different. The following side-effects were noted: salivation, ruminal tympany, urination, open eyelids and apneustic breathing in all the three groups. It was concluded that the surgical anaesthetic time was longest with XK, shortest with AK and intermediate with DK. The three ketamine drug combinations were safe for clinical use in WAD goats in lateral position since no significant cardiopulmonary embarrassment was noted. However, XK combination appears to be the ideal drug combination and should be used for general anaesthesia in WAD Goats Agro-Science Vol. 6 (2) 2007: pp. 67-71

The surface electrocardiogram in domestic ferrets

Objectives The two goals of the current study were to evaluate the surface electrocardiogram for significant differences observed between two different recumbency positions and suggest normal surface electrocardiographic values in those positions for the “clinically” normal domestic pet ferret (Mustela putorius furo). Animals, materials and methods Surface electrocardiograms were recorded using six standard limb leads from 80 apparently healthy domestic pet ferrets. Each was anesthetized with a combination of ketamine and diazepam. Electrocardiograms were recorded in two different recumbency positions (right lateral and sternal recumbency). The data were analyzed retrospectively and the values were compared statistically for the two different recumbency positions, for age and for gender. Results Significant differences were observed between recumbency recording positions for the following values: mean electrical axis, P wave amplitude, R wave amplitude in leads I and II and Q (or S) wave amplitude in lead I. Clinical relevance for P and Q wave amplitude differences was interpreted with caution. Heart rate was markedly higher in younger ferrets. No differences were observed between males and females. Conclusions Recumbency position significantly affects ECG recordings in the ferret. The values obtained are suggested as normal surface electrocardiographic values for the domestic pet ferret, in similar recumbency recording positions and under ketamine diazepam sedation.