Kakum Conservation Area Research Articles

Beyond Crop-Raiding: Unravelling the Broader Impacts of Human-Wildlife Conflict on Rural Communities.

This paper examines the impacts of human-wildlife conflict (HWC) in the Kakum Conservation Area (KCA), Ghana. The primary focus is on crop-raiding by elephants. Using ethnographic methodologies, the findings shed light on the broader impacts of HWC in rural communities. These include food insecurity characterized by a notable decline in the quality and quantity of food accessible to individuals and families affected by crop-raiding. The study also underscores the negative impacts on mental and physical wellbeing as residents contend with stress, anxiety and fear due to crop-raiding and encounters with elephants. Furthermore, this research uncovers how coping mechanisms employed by locals in response to these challenges may result in problem drinking. Also, efforts taken to mitigate crop-raiding unintentionally result in health consequences for farmers who face risks of contracting diseases such as malaria and suffer from sleep deprivation due to guarding their fields at night. More importantly, this study provides an in-depth examination of the broader vulnerabilities caused by HWC which are often ignored and underscores the importance of looking beyond the direct impacts in HWC hotspots like KCA.

Benefits and barriers to women’s participation in ecotourism development within the Kakum Conservation Area (Ghana): Implications for community planning

ABSTRACT Women’s participation in community development projects is now essential as it helps to promote inclusive development and decentralized development planning. This paper assesses the perceived benefits and barriers to women’s participation in ecotourism development and their implications for community planning at the Kakum Conservation Area (KCA). Using questionnaires, a total of 169 women from four selected communities within the KCA were sampled through a cluster sampling technique. The women were found to have perceived that the KCA project has yielded more environmental benefits than socio-cultural and economic benefits. They were uncertain as to whether the constraints inhibiting their participation were cultural or personal but were certain on operational and structural barriers. To address the situation, the Ghana Tourism Authority and the District Assemblies in the area should ensure the proper functioning of the decentralized planning structures for women to participate well and obtain the necessary benefits therein.

The role of size and number of forest patches in the conservation of bird species in a fragmented landscape

We used presence data to evaluate the role of small patches in bird conservation in the Cape Coast Metropolis of Ghana by surveying 24 forest patches. Cumulative species-area and number curves were plotted by ordering patch size from large to small and then small to large and values for cumulative area or number, richness and abundance calculated. We identified a total of 162 bird species during the study. There was no relationship between either patch area or number of patches and either species richness or abundance of birds. Therefore, we could not support the theory of passive sampling, which suggests large patches host higher species richness than small patches. Perhaps, this is, because of the following observed phenomena: 1). Edge effect, as species from nearby matrices used the patches; 2). Habitat sampling, as species sampled several different patches; and 3). Spillover, as species moved from nearby large reserves, such as Kakum Conservation Area (KCA), to the patches. The patches together occupied 2 947 ha and, compared with KCA, this is a ratio of 1:12, but the ratio in terms of species richness is 2:3, suggesting that many small patches could host more species than one large patch of comparable size. Thus, small patches are valuable for the conservation of bird species, which calls for various conservation bodies and institutions to take measures towards protecting such patches.

Women’s Participation in Ecotourism Development Within the Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana: Implications for Community Planning

ABSTRACT The paper assessed the level of participation of women in the management of the Kakum Conservation Area in Ghana focusing on selected communities. Using a multi-stage sampling technique, 169 women were selected. Questionnaire was the main research instrument relied on whilst inferential statistical tools such as independent sample t-test, and One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were employed. The paper revealed that although to some extent the participation of women was spontaneous but induced and coercive levels of participation were also found operating simultaneously in the study area. This limits the effective operation of spontaneous participation which supports bottom-up planning, and active and direct participation of women in ecotourism development activities in the area. It is therefore recommended that District Assemblies in the study area and environmental related organisations should make concerted efforts to empower women through effective communication or education (workshops, fora and radio programmes) on ecotourism development activities.

English

We investigated how four primate species in Kakum Conservation Area (KCA) coexisted after logging shrunk their feeding resources. We used multivariate discriminant function analysis to determine whether feeding sites and food types could discriminate them. Results showed that lower canopy discriminated Cercopithecus mona and Cercopithecus petaurista; middle canopy, C. petaurista and Procolobus verus; upper canopy P. verus and Colobus polykomos; seed C. polykomos; fruit, P. verus. Variations in seasonal and zonal selections of feeding sites and food types were significant at the 0.05 level. Primates selected upper canopy, flower and fruit more in rainy season (mean abundance ± se = 14.45±1.2, 10.21±0.53, 17.69±0.7) than in dry season (9.32±0.67, 8.11±0.52, 12.58±0.54); middle canopy and seed more in dry season (13.17±0.12 and 16.7±0.84) than rainy season (8.07±0.53 and 8.43±0.6), respectively. Upper and middle canopies and seed were more selected at the park’s centre (mean abundance ± se = 14.3±1.57, 12.8±1.06 and 16.83±1.16, respectively); and lower canopy, periphery (16.98±1.42). C. polykomos selected the park’s centre mostly (16.6±2.4); C. petaurista, inner (16.9±1.2); and C. mona, periphery (14.7±1.3). Selection by C. polykomos reduced from the park’s centre (mean abundance ± se = 16.6±2.4) through inner (10.5±0.2) to periphery (6.6±1.6); but selection by C. mona reduced from periphery (14.7±1.3) through inner (12.2±1.3) to centre (11.2±1.6). C. petaurista and P. verus appeared to be forest generalists. Seasonal and spatial variations, resource variability and forest conditions facilitated resource partitioning to allow co-existence. Strict measures are required at KCA to facilitate forest regeneration to conserve the primates.   Key words: Conservation, monkeys, resource-shrunk, co-existence, reserve, forest, regeneration.

<b>Hunted species and hunting equipment used by rainforest poachers in Ghana</b>

This study investigated species that are hunted in protected rainforest areas and the methods used to hunt them, using data obtained by recording items in the possession of 17 poachers arrested in Kakum Conservation Area in Ghana over a period of 12 months. Twelve species were recorded among 69 total animals. Most were mammals, including primates. Shotguns and wire snares were the main hunting methods used. Primates must be given special protection and conservation attention, as they were found to be prominent among the animals poached.

Ecotourism in the Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana: Local politics, practice and outcome

In many rural areas of Africa, creation of protected areas and introduction of ecotourism result in changes in local livelihoods. Yet, despite assurances of improved and alternative livelihood options by conservationists and governments, rural communities often tend to be worse-off following creation of protected areas and introduction of tourism products due to, among others, inequity in the distribution of tourism benefits. This paper examines the outcome of ecotourism in local communities adjacent to Ghana's foremost and most popular ecotourism destination – the Kakum Conservation Area – and its influence on the relationship between local residents and park officials. Using agency consultations, in-depth interviews with residents from four selected communities and document reviews, findings indicate limited ecotourism benefits and widespread ecotourism costs in the local communities in the vicinity of the Conservation Area, despite increasing tourist visitation and revenue from ecotourism to the government and the management agencies. Management implicationsThe likelihood to achieve benefits for the local communities in and around protected areas by ecotourism increases,•If the management focuses on the pro-poor aspects and ensures that the implementation of ecotourism is not only focused on conservation goals.•If the overall goals go beyond government and conservation agencies interest and include the improvement of livelihood outcomes in the local community.•If the local community realises its role and participates actively.•If the participation is associated with local empowerment in, and stewardship of ecotourism activities.

Wildlife laws monitoring as an adaptive management tool in protected area management in Ghana: a case of Kakum Conservation Area.

Introduction The wildlife laws of Ghana alienated the rural communities from forests and material well-being depended upon for their livelihood and this manifests itself in the progressive conflict between the park patrol staff and poachers from the fringes of the protected areas.Case descriptionThe main aim of this study was to determine the impact of quantification of patrol efforts on indicators of illegal hunting activities that occur in rainforest protected areas, as a result of monitoring patrol operations and modifying the original plan. The specific objectives were to determine the optimal patrol efforts necessary to reduce illegal wildlife use to minimal; and the influence of the rainfall and seasonal activities on illegal wildlife use.Discussion and EvaluationThe results indicated that as the patrol efforts increased the encounter with illegal wildlife use also increased until a certain point that the encounter rates started decreasing. Neither rainfall nor seasonal activities influenced the illegal activities and the patrol efforts. The protection staff of rainforest protected areas would work effectively to bring down illegal wildlife off-take to the barest minimum if monitored, quantified and provide feed-back.ConclusionsIllegal wildlife off-take can also be reduced by the protection staff if the original plans are made flexible to be adjusted. Recommendations for further studies have been made.

English

The factors that influenced elephants raiding in some spatial ranges around Kakum Conservation Area (KCA), Ghana were investigated. Crops were the basis for range selection by the elephants and the most commonly raided crops were plantain, cocoa and cassava. However, oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantations, bushes, crops at seedling and growing stages, or farms with active pepper fence never suffered any raid. It was observed that the presence of pawpaw (Carica papaya) and bako (Tieghemella heckelii) exposed nearby farms to risk. Since elephants do not raid oil palm plantations around KCA, we recommend that only oil palm groves should border the KCA to mitigate human-elephant conflict around KCA and that the pepper-fence method currently in use could also be effective if its accompanying financial burden is taken away from the farmers and funded by the government. Key words: Raided zone, oil palm plantation, pepper-fence, human-elephant conflict, protected areas.

Population studies of Lowe’s Monkey (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae: Cercopithecus lowei Thomas, 1923) in Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana

<p>The status of Lowe’s Monkey <em>Cercopithecus lowei</em> was assessed during a survey in Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana. Within the reserve logging and hunting was banned 20 years ago, and the forest underwent two decades of natural regeneration. The main objectives of the study were to evaluate the impact of conservation measures on the local population of Lowe’s Monkey<em> </em>and assess its relationships with other primates and non-primate mammals. Data on population status were collected during line transect surveys. Comparing the present mean encounter rate of 1.03 (±0.03) groups/km to that recorded in 1993 (0.31±0.16 groups/km) suggests an average population growth rate of 13.6% per annum. Conservation measures such as banning illegal logging and hunting have likely contributed to the population increase. Lowe’s monkeys were often observed in close proximity to other primates (e.g., Black and White Colobus) and non-primate mammals (e.g., Maxwell’s Duiker), but neither socio-positive nor antagonistic interactions were observed. Recommendations are made for further improvement and studies of the species elsewhere.</p><div> </div>

Contextualising the meaning of ecotourism

Ecotourism is one of the most advocated concepts in tourism studies, yet there remains considerable debate on what the meaning is, or what it should be. Despite this lack of clarity, there is a broad set of ecotourism principles that are clear and widely promoted, including environmental conservation and education, cultural preservation and experience, and economic benefits. Based on these principles, this paper compares local understanding of ecotourism from the perspectives of ecotourism-related agency staff, and local communities adjacent to the Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana. Using a qualitative research approach, agency staff and community residents were involved in interview conversations. Findings indicate a limited agency understanding of ecotourism, and local community confusion between conservation and ecotourism.

Ecotourism implementation in the Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana: administrative framework and local community experiences

In principle ecotourism should support environmental conservation and local development; however, achieving success in delivering on frequently competing objectives of conservation and development has often proven difficult in many ecotourism destinations in Africa. This paper focuses on the implementation of ecotourism in the Kakum Conservation Area (KCA), the most popular ecotourism destination in Ghana. It examines the current administrative framework for implementing ecotourism, and the involvement and experiences of ecotourism by communities around the KCA. A case study research method was adopted using in-depth interviews with local residents and relevant park and non-governmental organisation agency staff. Findings indicate that the implementation of ecotourism is not recognised by the park officials as a process requiring negotiation between stakeholders with different agendas. Thus, the current ecotourism administrative framework does not acknowledge community involvement and participation as relevant to the implementation of ecotourism in the KCA which has generated mixed experiences among the local residents.

Biodiversity conservation and livelihoods in rural Ghana: Impacts and coping strategies

Increasingly, conservationists and policy makers are in quest of projects directed towards biodiversity conservation. However, impacts of biodiversity conservation projects tend to be more severe in natural resource-dependent communities with limited livelihood options. This article examines the impacts of a biodiversity conservation project – creation of Kakum Conservation Area (KCA) – on livelihoods of rural people in Ghana, in terms of experiences and adaptive capacity of local communities. The article reveals that the impacts of the KCA project on local livelihoods varied according to proximity to the KCA boundary and the type of crops cultivated, as well as the scale of previous dependence on resources in the KCA. The article indicates that the KCA project would benefit by: (i) understanding the socio-cultural and political contexts influencing rural residents; and (ii) providing alternative livelihoods for communities experiencing the impacts of the KCA. Policy implications are further presented.

Local attitudes towards natural resources management in rural Ghana

Purpose – Local support is fundamental in natural resources management (NRM). However, recent studies indicate that NRM in protected areas in developing countries is often faced with local resistance due to its impacts on livelihoods. The purpose of this paper is to examine local attitudes – positive and negative responses – towards NRM in protected areas and implications of NRM benefits on local support for conservation of protected areas. Design/methodology/approach – A quantitative research method was used for this study. Structured questionnaire survey was administered to 310 respondents across four case study communities – Abrafo, Mesomagor, Adadientem and Nuamakrom – around the Kakum Conservation Area (KCA), Ghana. χ2 test and logistic regression were used to analyse the data with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Findings – Findings showed positive attitudes towards NRM in protected areas (85.9 per cent) and high support for conservation of KCA (86.5 per cent). Respondents recognised the importance of the KCA in managing natural resources especially forest and water resources. Positive attitudes towards conservation of KCA were largely influenced by receipt of socio-economic benefits from the KCA, in terms of employment, income and involvement in KCA management. However, those excluded from socio-economic benefits from the KCA also expressed positive attitudes towards conservation, suggesting that support for NRM transcends socio-economic benefits. On the other hand, local people recognised the challenges associated with NRM in protected areas such as increased farm raids by wildlife, loss of access to timber and non-timber forest products. Originality/value – This paper has revealed that although socio-economic benefits from NRM in protected areas influence local people’s support for conservation, local knowledge of the environmental benefits is equally important. The depth of local knowledge of NRM in the KCA is dependent on educational status and level of involvement of respondents in the KCA in terms of employment, and the effectiveness of educational campaigns by the park officials. Therefore, in the absence of clear development programmes from government and park officials to educate and involve local people in NRM, it appears the conservation objective upon which NRM in protected areas are designed may not be realised.

Prioritization of strategies for protected area management with local people using the hybrid SWOT-AHP analysis: the case of Kakum conservation area, Ghana

Article history: Received January 20, 2015 Received in revised format 6 February 2015 Accepted 15 March 2015 Available online March 15 2015 The contribution of protected areas towards conservation and protection of biodiversity cannot be over emphasized. Likewise, the dependence of local communities on forest and natural resources cannot be overlooked. Hence for the long term viability of forest reserves and wildlife protected area, the relationship of local people living close to these areas are of key importance if conflict of use can be mitigated. Admittedly, decision-making with respect to forest resource use and protection are complex due to the multiple interests of the major stakeholders. Stakeholder involvement in the planning, management and policy analysis can help resolve conflicts, and increase the commitment of local people to support conservation of protected areas. In this paper, we employ the SWOT-AHP methodology, with the aid of the Priority Estimation Tool (PriEsT), to evaluate and prioritize three management strategies for the Kakum conservation area in Ghana, as a means to facilitate conservation while ensuring benefits to local people. Considering the management objectives of the conservation area, seventeen SWOT sub-factors were identified and used in rating the three alternative management strategies. Among the strength sub-factors, enforcement of protection regulations (S4) is the most important. Similarly, limited funds for patrolling and outreach programs (W3), local people’s interest in alternative livelihood (O4) and the presence of illegal activities (T3) are the most important weakness, opportunity and threat sub-factors respectively. The management strategy “institute village committees to support monitoring and protection of resources” (A1) has the highest priority rating, indicating that management authorities must pay more attention to collaborative management. We propose that to improve on protected area management in Ghana, more management strategy studies must be conducted. However, these studies may apply the fuzzy AHP technique since it is supposed to have a better capacity to handle uncertainties in human judgments during decision-making. Growing Science Ltd. All rights reserved. 5 © 201

English

This research was undertaken at Kakum Conservation Area (KCA) in the Central Region of Ghana, from October 2011 to September 2012. The aim was to determine the population density and factors affecting distribution of bongos (Tragelaphuseurycerus) for management planning and conservation of the bongo as well as tourism promotion. The methodology involved a field study of sampled plots that represented three habitat types, namely closed forest, open forest and thickets and habitat classification based on canopy coverage and locations of these habitats, whether marginal or deep inside the forest within each of the nine ranges. It was observed that encounters with bongos in KCA were more likely to be during early hours of the day, from 05.00 to 07.00 h GMT and later in the day, from 17.30 to 18.00 h GMT. The usual location was in their preferred thickets at four out of the nine ranges of KCA, and their distribution was not affected by seasonality or habitat utilization. About 5.3 bongos/km2 currently occupy the KCA, which can be said to be currently under severe pressure as evidenced by the presence of hunting tools and human activities all over. The results of Pearson’s correlation coefficient regarding bongo densities and water availability suggested that sources of water affected the distribution of the bongos in the KCA since more bongos were encountered closer to water sources. This underscores the importance of sources of water in the KCA for the conservation of the bongos, and the need to ensure adequate protection of the rivers and rivulets in KCA and off-reserve areas. These results have implications for the formulation of adaptive management plans that would protect the secretive, charismatic and largest antelopes in the KCA, thereby promoting tourism.   Key words: Population density, distribution, bongos, secretive, forest margins, Kakum Conservation Area, hunting pressure, water availability, tourism.

English

This study was conducted around Kakum Conservation Area (KCA) to investigate the effect of human activities in 5 km belt of KCA on the ecological functioning and conservation of the PA, as well as effect of KCA on local livelihood. Supervised classification of multi-spectral ASTER imagery was used to determine land-use/cover types in the study area. Open ended questionnaires, group discussions and key informant interviews were conducted among 120 respondents from 40 sampled communities. Classification of the ASTER imagery provided a description of the dominant human activities around KCA. Regression analysis showed that distance was 20% responsible for variance in illegal activities in the PA. Correlation analysis further showed a positive but insignificant relationship between the size of population in communities and illegal activities in KCA. The major impact was from elephant raiding, whereas loss of access to important natural resources was considered as the other significant stressor. Key words: Ecological functioning, conservation, fringe communities, imagery, classification, illegal activities, land-use/cover types, livelihood.

English

The Kakum Conservation Area (KCA) is a protected remnant semi-deciduous forest of Ghana’s fast dwindling portion of the Upper Guinea Forest. The prospects and potentials for sustainable conservation and their challenges were the main concern of this study; that is whether there is the opportunity for KCA to increase tourism drive as a means of ensuring self-funding for sustainable conservation in the long term. In this paper, we highlight the main features of KCA that present enviable opportunity to promote tourism and increase internal-generating funds as well as appealing to donor sources, and set it apart as one of the most successful attempts at management, protection and conservation of biodiversity in a developing country. We adopted a thorough search and used an analytical - descriptive approach to provide information. We found that although only a small portion of the KCA is primary and a greater portion remains secondary because of logging records, KCA contains great faunal diversity including charismatic ones that attract tourists, hundreds of herbaceous plants and woody plant species and various sceneries including the “big tree”, which altogether hold great potential for being an enviable tourist attraction. Revenue generated internally, mainly from tourism, from 2006 to 2010 showed a positive trend that predicted a rise in revenue in future years, especially when the conservation area is marketed appropriately. However, we found need for an intervention from the donor world in view of the high cost of initial investment in infrastructural development; we are sure that promoted tourism will increase internal-generating funds to make KCA self-funding subsequently. Key words: Kakum Conservation Area (KCA), big tree, canopy walk-way, hiking, observation platform, rainforest, tourism, virgin forest, waterfalls, self-funding, donor sources.

Forest duiker (Cephalophus spp.) abundance and hunting activities in the Kakum conservation area, Ghana

The abundance of forest duikers (Cephalophus spp.) was compared to the incidence of hunting activities in the Kakum conservation area, Ghana. Transect surveys indicated that four duiker species were present: Maxwell’s duiker (Cephalophus maxwellii), Bay duiker(Cephalophus dorsalis), Black duiker (Cephalophus niger), and Yellow-backed duiker(Cephalophus silvicultor). The indicators of hunting activities included the presence ofempty cartridges, snares, gunshots, carbide powder, poacher’s camps and arrest of poachers. Season’s fluctuations and hunting activities appear to have effect on duiker abundance; the study could have strong evidence to establish it. A long term duiker population monitoring program is required in the area in order to come out with strong factors affecting duiker populations and their implications on conservation of wildlife resources. Key words: Forest duikers, hunting activities, abundance, conservation, Kakum conservation area.

Heard but not seen: an acoustic survey of the African forest elephant population at Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana

AbstractThis study, designed to survey forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) at Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana, is the first to apply acoustic methods to elephant abundance estimation and to compare results with independent survey estimates. Nine acoustic sensors gathered sound continuously for 38 days. Low‐frequency calling rates have been established as useful elephant abundance indices at a Namibian watering hole and a central African forest clearing. In this study, we estimated elephant population size by applying an abundance index model and detection function developed in central Africa to data from simultaneous sampling periods on Kakum sensors. The sensor array recorded an average of 1.81 calls per 20‐min sampling period from an effective detection area averaging 10.27 km2. The resulting estimate of 294 elephants (95% CI: 259–329) falls within confidence bounds of recent dung‐based surveys. An extended acoustic model, estimating the frequency with which elephants are silent when present, yields an estimate of 350 elephants (95% CI: 315–384). Acoustic survey confidence intervals are at least half as wide as those from dung‐based surveys. This study demonstrates that acoustic surveying is a valuable tool for estimating elephant abundance, as well as for detecting other vocal species and anthropogenic noises that may be associated with poaching.