Juvenile Atlantic Salmon Salmo Salar Research Articles

The prey availability and diet of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in low-productivity rivers in northern Europe.

The availability of resources varies across a species distributional range, and a low-productivity area can make a species more vulnerable. We investigated the invertebrate composition and prey choice of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in low-productivity rivers in northeast Iceland, which is one of the species' most northerly distributions. By sampling benthic and drift invertebrate populations, we found that prey availability was similar within and between rivers. Gut content samples showed that the main prey choice for juvenile S. salar was the Chironomidae. The type of food items consumed varied across different weight groups of S. salar, with smaller juveniles having more diverse diet. S. salar did not have a selection preference for chironomids, which indicates that they were eating the highly available prey in their environment, rather than hunting high biomass items such as terrestrial invertebrates and large Dipterans. Estimates of dietary niche showed that S. salar in these low-productivity rivers relied on consuming what was most readily available, the chironomids, and that they must share resources with other salmonid species. This may be due to the low diversity of freshwater invertebrates (fewer prey options), whereas S. salar in nutrient-rich rivers could rely more on terrestrial invertebrates as an additional subsidy in their diet. In conclusion, with limited prey choices, juvenile S. salar in nutrient-poor rivers, especially in a biogeographically isolated region with low species diversity, may increase in vulnerability and decrease in adaptability to environmental change. Management methods that increase benthic prey abundance and diversity are recommended for conserving the S. salar population in a nutrient-poor river.

Juvenile salmonid abundance in a diamictic semi‐fluvial stream in Norway—does stream bed shelter beat large woody debris?

AbstractThis study investigates the effect of large woody debris (LWD) on the abundance of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar, L.) and anadromous brown trout (Salmo trutta, L.) in semi‐alluvial side channels of the river Aurlandselva (Norway) using point electrofishing and microhabitat mapping. Not the presence of LWD, but stream bed shelter availability and the distance to spawning grounds affected the fish abundance (fish/point), independent of other habitat components. LWD showed only an effect on fish abundance when in interaction with other habitat components. This discrepancy can be explained by the availability of cavities in the shelter‐rich coarse substrate which provide sufficient cover and territory for juvenile fish at the given carrying capacity of river Aurlandselva. Whilst LWD may be most effective to provide shelter in lowland streams (bed slope <0.005), maintaining or restoring shelter‐rich coarse substrates should be considered a key priority in steeper salmonid rivers and associated semi‐fluvial streams.

Dietary calcifediol reduces mesenteric adiposity to the benefit of carcass growth independently of circulating vitamin D hormone in juvenile Atlantic salmon

Dietary vitamin D is required by cultivated fish for optimal growth, feed utilisation and bone health. The in vivo conversion of cholecalciferol (D3) to active vitamin D hormone (1,25-OH-D3) may be impaired in farm-raised fish fed modern feed formulations. Requiring fewer metabolic steps for its conversion, the use of dietary calcifediol (25-OH-D3) may mitigate against deficits in vitamin D metabolism.A 90-day experimental feeding trial was undertaken in juvenile (23 g) Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) to test the efficacy of 25-OH-D3 added to a standard diet containing recommended levels of D3 (5640 IU). Test diets contained 100, 200 or 400 μg/kg added 25-OH-D3 against a no additive control diet. Effects on zootechnical performance, indices of adiposity, bone mineralisation, and circulating vitamin D metabolites were tested.Dietary 25-OH-D3 significantly reduced feed conversion ratio (FCR) and resulted in numerical increases in growth performance. 25-OH-D3 also significantly reduced mesenteric adiposity with concurrent increases in carcass weight. Levels of calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, zinc and manganese were not modulated in the vertebrae of fish receiving 25-OH-D3. Circulating 25-OH-D3 remained below detection limits and 1,25-OH-D3 was not significantly modulated by the dietary manipulations.The significant reduction of mesenteric adiposity to the benefit of carcass weight shows that dietary 25-OH-D3 improves the utilisation of lipids. The vitamin D requirement for bone mineralisation was met by the basal diet. Segmented regression estimates a dietary 25-OH-D3 supplementation of 143 to 180 μg/kg for improved feed conversion and reduced mesenteric adiposity. The lack of correlation between circulating vitamin D hormone and mesenteric adiposity indicates that lipid metabolism is regulated by localised tissue activation of vitamin D, rather than the endocrine functions of circulating 1,25-OH-D3.

Validity of winter sampling for estimation of salmonid abundance by electrofishing

Electrofishing removal sampling is a common method for abundance estimation of juvenile salmonids in streams and is usually performed during autumn. European guidelines specify that sampling should be conducted at water temperatures ≥ 5 °C, but studies investigating the validity of sampling below this threshold are lacking. We conducted electrofishing experiments during autumn and winter in three Norwegian rivers, comparing abundance estimation accuracy, rate of fish emigration from electrofishing sites, and mortality for juvenile Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and brown trout Salmo trutta. Abundance estimates were significantly more accurate during autumn than during winter, less accurate for age-0 fish than for older parr, and more accurate when the number of electrofishing passes was increased. By digging through the substrate after electrofishing, we found that a higher proportion of fish were uncatchable during winter than during autumn, and that age-0 fish were more likely than older fish to be uncatchable. For salmon older than age-0, both autumn and winter sampling consistently yielded relatively accurate abundance estimates. However, the rate of fish emigration from electrofishing sites was significantly higher during autumn than during winter and if block nets are not used, emigration during autumn sampling could cause severe underestimation of Atlantic salmon abundance. Fish mortality did not differ between autumn and winter sampling and was low for both species and all age groups. We recommend the use of block nets and conducting five electrofishing passes to reduce the likelihood of severe estimation error.

Movement and habitat shift responses of juvenile Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) to annually permanent stream flooding.

Reservoir formation in a river system changes a lotic environment to more lacustrine conditions, with impacts throughout the ecosystem. In this study, a river reach containing typical salmonid riffle/run habitat was flooded to create a large, deep pool from June to September in each of 3 years. We test the hypothesis that juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) with their preference for run/riffle habitats will respond to the transformation to a lentic environment by moving into adjacent lotic environments. Movements of juvenile Atlantic salmon were monitored using a combination of biotelemetry (radio- and passive integrated transponder-tagging) and electrofishing. Results showed that no tracked fish moved away from the created pool habitat. Mass-specific growth rates showed the created pool habitat resulted in net growth of juveniles. The results confirm that fish may not immediately (i.e., at least for an approximate 2 months) respond to rapid, large-scale habitat alterations by moving to find similar habitat conditions outside the altered habitat. This is most probably related to plasticity of behavior and habitat use, and no change in biological conditions to a point that would negatively impact fish growth and survival, for example food availability, competition, or predation. The results also support the hypothesis that the relative importance of physical habitat variables is not universal among streams and populations, therefore limiting the value of applying standard habitat suitability criteria and use.

Effects of Aurantiochytrium acetophilum as a source of docosahexaenoic acid for juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) on growth, nutrient apparent digestibility, tissue fatty acid composition and expression of lipid metabolism-related genes

Thraustochytrids are a group of unicellular marine protists that are noted for their ability to produce high amounts of lipids, especially docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), making them a valuable source for replacing fish oil in aquafeeds. Varying levels of Aurantiochrytrium acetophilum meal (TM) were evaluated as replacement of fish oil in extruded diets for juvenile Atlantic salmon on growth, nutrient apparent digestibility, fatty acid composition in muscle and liver and expression of genes associated with lipid metabolism. Four experimental diets were tested: a control diet without the inclusion of A. acetophilum meal and three experimental diets derived from the control diet, in which fish oil was progressively replaced by the addition of A. acetophilum meal at 2.5% (TM 2.5), 6.5% (TM 6.5) and 12% (TM 12) respectively. After 12 weeks of feeding, the growth, feed conversion, condition factor and survival of the fish were not affected by the inclusion of A. acetophilum in the diet. However, the 12% inclusion significantly decreased the viscerosomatic index of the fish and the digestibility of protein, lipids, ash and energy compared to the other experimental diets. The lipid content and fatty acid profile of the liver and muscle were significantly affected by diet composition. In both tissues, fish fed the TM 12 diet retained the highest levels of DHA. However, it was also observed that EPA concentrations lessened with increasing dietary content of A. acetophilum meal. Finally, the decrease in the expression of Δ5fad in the fish fed with the TM 6.5 and TM 12 diets showed that fish do not require a higher expression of this desaturase for DHA production, due to the high content of this fatty acid in A. acetophilum meal.

Migration patterns and navigation cues of Atlantic salmon post-smolts migrating from 12 rivers through the coastal zones around the Irish Sea.

The freshwater phase of the first seaward migration of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is relatively well understood when compared with our understanding of the marine phase of their migration. In 2021, 1008 wild and 60 ranched Atlantic salmon smolts were tagged with acoustic transmitters in 12 rivers in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Ireland. Large marine receiver arrays were deployed in the Irish Sea at two locations: at the transition of the Irish Sea into the North Atlantic between Ireland and Scotland, and between southern Scotland and Northern Ireland, to examine the early phase of the marine migration of Atlantic salmon smolts. After leaving their natal rivers' post-smolt migration through the Irish Sea was rapid with minimum speeds ranging from 14.03 to 38.56 km.day-1 for Atlantic salmon smolts that entered the Irish Sea directly from their natal river, to 9.69-39.94 km.day-1 for Atlantic salmon smolts that entered the Irish Sea directly from their natal estuary. Population minimum migration success through the study area was strongly correlated with the distance of travel, populations further away from the point of entry to the open North Atlantic exhibited lower migration success. Post-smolts from different populations experienced different water temperatures on entering the North Atlantic. This was largely driven by the timing of their migration and may have significant consequences for feeding and ultimately survivorship. The influence of water currents on post-smolt movement was investigated using data from previously constructed numerical hydrodynamic models. Modeled water current data in the northern Irish Sea showed that post-smolts had a strong preference for migrating when the current direction was at around 283° (west-north-west) but did not migrate when exposed to strong currents in other directions. This is the most favorable direction for onward passage from the Irish Sea to the continental shelf edge current, a known accumulation point for migrating post-smolts. These results strongly indicate that post-smolts migrating through the coastal marine environment are: (1) not simply migrating by current following (2) engage in active directional swimming (3) have an intrinsic sense of their migration direction and (4) can use cues other than water current direction to orientate during this part of their migration.

Effect of florfenicol administered through feed on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) gut and its microbiome

Although concerns about the impacts of antibiotics in aquatic organisms are reported worldwide, the potential adverse effects on fish gut microbial communities and fish health are still not well known. In this study, we investigated the effects of florfenicol (FFC) on the gut microbiome and gastrointestinal (GIT) gene expression in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Three doses of FFC were used to coat experimental feed at 10, 20 and 30 mg/kg/ fish body weight (bw). The feed was administered for 18 days, followed by a 10-day recovery period. The metatranscriptome analysis revealed that 10 and 30 mg/kg bw of FFC led to the downregulation of genes involved in the transcription of NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase chain-1, suggesting that the antibiotic targets bacterial respiratory metabolism. The 30 mg/kg bw FFC treatment upregulated genes that encode glycolytic enzymes, such as phosphoglycerate kinase, indicating a disruption of energy metabolism in the microbiome. Analysis of the fish host transcriptome showed that the FFC treatment affected cellular processes in the GIT system of fish, including pathways related to apoptosis and DNA metabolism. The 30 mg/kg bw FFC treatment specifically activated pathways related to cellular regulation, including LXR/RXR activation, FXR/RXR activation, and protein ubiquitination. At the end of the recovery phase, the 30 mg/kg bw FFC treated group altered pathways related to EIF2 signaling and lysine degradation.This study identified molecular-level effects of FFC treatment on the gut microbiome and the GIT of juvenile Atlantic salmon, although phenotypic changes in growth or condition were not observed. Most of the observed changes were reversible and receded at the end of the recovery period, apart from the highest treatment group. These findings emphasize the importance of understanding the molecular mechanisms that underlie the potential effects of antibiotics in order to optimize antibiotic treatments in aquaculture.

Including environmental covariates clarifies the relationship between endangered Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) abundance and environmental DNA

AbstractCollecting environmental DNA (eDNA) as a nonlethal sampling approach has been valuable in detecting the presence/absence of many imperiled taxa; however, its application to indicate species abundance poses many challenges. A deeper understanding of eDNA dynamics in aquatic systems is required to better interpret the substantial variability often associated with eDNA samples. Our sampling design took advantage of natural variation in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) distribution and abundance along 9 km of a single river in the Province of New Brunswick (Canada), covering different spatial and temporal scales to address the unknown seasonal impacts of environmental variables on the quantitative relationship between eDNA concentration and species abundance. First, we asked whether accounting for environmental variables strengthened the relationship between eDNA and salmon abundance by sampling eDNA during their spring seaward migration. Second, we asked how environmental variables affected eDNA dynamics during the summer as the parr abundance remained relatively constant. Spring eDNA samples were collected over a 6‐week period (12 times) near a rotary screw trap that captured approximately 18.6% of migrating smolts, whereas summer sampling occurred (i) at three distinct salmon habitats (9 times) and (ii) along the full 9 km (3 times). We modeled eDNA concentration as a product of fish abundance and environmental variables, demonstrating that (1) with inclusion of abundance and environmental covariates, eDNA was highly correlated with spring smolt abundance and (2) the relationships among environmental covariates and eDNA were affected by seasonal variation with relatively constant parr abundance in summer. Our findings underscore that with appropriate study design that accounts for seasonal environmental variation and life history phenology, eDNA salmon population assessments may have the potential to evaluate abundance fluctuations in spring and summer.

Investigation of the functions of n-3 very-long-chain PUFAs in skin using in vivo Atlantic salmon and in vitro human and fish skin models.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of dietary n-3 very-long-chain PUFA (n-3 VLC-PUFA) on the maturation and development of skin tissue in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in vivo, as well as their effects on skin keratocyte and human skin fibroblast cell migration in vitro. Atlantic salmon were fed different dietary levels of n-3 VLC-PUFA from an initial weight of 6 g to a final weight of 11 g. Changes in skin morphology were analysed at two time points during the experiment, and the effects on skin tissue fatty acid composition were determined. Additionally, in vitro experiments using human dermal fibroblasts and primary Atlantic salmon keratocytes were conducted to investigate the effect of VLC-PUFA on the migration capacity of the cells. The results demonstrated that increased dietary levels of n-3 VLC-PUFA led to an increased epidermis thickness and more rapid scale maturation in Atlantic salmon skin in vivo, leading to a more mature skin morphology, and possibly more robust skin, at an earlier life stage. Additionally, human skin fibroblasts and salmon skin keratocytes supplemented with n-3 VLC-PUFA in vitro showed more rapid migration, indicating potentially beneficial effects of VLC-PUFA in wound healing. In conclusion, VLC-PUFA may have beneficial effects on skin tissue development, function and integrity.

Smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) suppress Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) feeding activity and increase aggressive behaviours at warmer temperatures

AbstractBy 2050, mean temperature in the state of Maine, located in the Northeastern USA, is expected to increase nearly 1°C, which could directly affect native coldwater salmonid behaviour and increase competition with warmwater smallmouth bass. We conducted a microcosm experiment to examine the feeding and agonistic behaviour of endangered juvenile Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) at two temperatures (18 and 21°C) in the presence and absence of non‐native Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu). By visually reviewing footage of fish competition in our tanks, we quantified feeding and agonistic interactions. We predicted salmon would exhibit lower feeding activity than bass at 21°C and antagonistic interactions between the two species would increase with warming. We found salmon feeding activity was reduced by smallmouth bass presence and this effect was stronger at 21°C. We also found smallmouth bass aggression was strongest at 21°C when salmon were present. Lastly, feeding activity and aggression in both species changed with food availability. These findings illustrate the potential for invasive warmwater species to outcompete native salmonids for resources, especially under the warmer conditions predicted by climate change scenarios.

Composition and apparent digestibility coefficients of essential nutrients and energy of cyanobacterium meal produced from Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) for freshwater-phase Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) pre-smolts

Composition and apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) were determined for whole-cell Spirulina meal produced from Arthrospira platensis (UTEX LB 2340). Spirulina meal contained 60 % crude protein, 20 MJ kg−1 gross energy, 16 % nitrogen-free extract (NFE), 10 % ash, 5 % moisture and 4 % crude lipid. Its protein was comprised of 25 % essential (EAAs) and 25 % non-EAAs. Spirulina meal protein demonstrated high EAA indices (1.0–1.3) relative to egg albumin and premium fishmeal. Spirulina meal was rich (mg 100 g−1) in chlorophyll a (1803) and c (369), β-carotene (141) and zeaxanthin (88) with low concentrations of antinutritional compounds crude fibre (4 %), trypsin inhibition activity (7 TUI mg−1) and phytate (17 mg g−1/ g) and undetectable heavy metal contaminants. A substitution digestion assay using cylindro-circular tanks (100L) equipped with faecal settlement columns was conducted with 164 juvenile (25 g) freshwater Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) at 13 °C fed to apparent satiation with a reference diet (100 % basal mixture) or a test diet (80 % basal mixture and 20 % test ingredient) for 7 weeks. Single-ingredient ADCs for Spirulina meal were dry matter (75 %), ash (61 %), protein (81 %), lipid (73 %), NFE (63 %), energy (77 %), EAAs (average 91 %) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs, 96 %). Digestible indispensable AA scores (DIAAS) for Spirulina meal were equal to or higher than 1 (range 1.0–4.6) showing Spirulina meal to be a high-quality protein for Atlantic salmon. Diet ADCs for the 20 % Spirulina meal diet were statistically the same as the reference diet for dry matter (73–74 %), ash (36–41 %), crude lipid (93–94 %), NFE (23–32 %) and energy (82–83 %), while crude protein ADC was slightly reduced from 92 to 90 %. Inclusion of 20 % Spirulina meal had no significant effects on diet ADC for the required EAAs (93–98 %), n-6 PUFA (96 %), n-3 PUFA (100 %) or essential n-3 long-chain PUFAs eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (100 %).

Evaluation of ME-PRO® and EnviroMeal Combinations as Partial and Complete Fish Meal Replacements in Diets for Juvenile Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Reared in A Recirculating Aquaculture System

A feeding trial was conducted in a recirculation aquaculture system (RAS) to test the growth of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). A standard salmon diet (Control) was used as the template for two experimental diets that contained a combination of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae (BSFL) defatted meal (EnviroMeal) and fermented soy protein (MEPRO®). The two ingredients were combined to replace fish meal by 50 or 100% (MEP/Meal 50 and MEP/Meal 100) in the experimental diets. At the 12-week trial conclusion, all growth parameters were similar among the three treatments. The diet containing no fish meal, MEP/Meal 100, demonstrated slightly higher numeric growth performance compared to the Control and MEP/Meal 50 treatment. Similarly, a histological analysis of distal intestines and organosomatic indices showed no significant difference among treatments. All intestinal samples were healthy in appearance showing no apparent enteritis. The results of this study show a combination of fermented soy and BSFL meal may be a viable option in sustainable diets for commercial Atlantic salmon production.

Timing and frequency of high temperature events bend the onset of behavioural thermoregulation in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

The role of temperature on biological activities and the correspondent exponential relationship with temperature has been known for over a century. However, lacking to date is knowledge relating to (a) the recovery of ectotherms subjected to extreme temperatures in the wild, and (b) the effects repeated extreme temperatures have on the temperatures that induce behavioural thermoregulation (aggregations). We examined these questions by testing the hypothesis that thermal thresholds which initiate aggregations in juvenile Atlantic salmon (AS) (Salmo salar) are not static, but are temporally dynamic across a summer and follow a hysteresis loop. To test our hypothesis, we deployed custom-made underwater camera (UWC) systems in known AS thermal refuges to observe the timing of aggregation events in a natural system and used these data to develop and test models that predict the temperatures that induce thermal aggregations. Consistent with our hypothesis our UWC observations revealed a range of aggregation onset temperatures (AOT) ranging from 24.2°C to 27.1°C, thus confirming our hypothesis that AOTs are dynamic across summer. Our models suggest it take ~ 11days of non-thermally taxing temperatures for the AOT to rebound in the study river. Conversely, we found that as the frequency of events increased, the AOT declined, from 27.1°C to 24.2°C. Integrating both model components led to more robust model performance. Further, when these models were tested against an independent data set from the same river, the results remained robust. Our findings illustrate the complexity underlying behavioural thermoregulation in AS-a complexity that most likely extends to other salmonids. The frequency of extreme heat events is predicted to increase, and this has the capacity to decrease AOT thresholds in AS, ultimately reducing their resilience to extreme temperature events.

Comparative trophic ecology of nearshore juvenile salmonids in Lake Ontario

The trophic ecology of juvenile salmonids in nearshore Lake Ontario is not well understood. We used stomach content and stable isotope diet and niche metrics, as well as condition metrics to understand the trophic ecology of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), brown trout (Salmo trutta), Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush). Salmonids had comparable length-weight slopes and stomach mass, and allometric patterns existed between fork-length and both relative stomach content mass and energy density for all species. Interspecific differences existed with respect to diet, and the magnitude of difference generally increased with increasing body size. Small sized salmonid (fork length < 100 mm) diets mainly consisted of Diptera (% volume = 66 – 100; prey isotope %: 11.7 – 78.4), while large sized salmonids (fork length 200 – 300 mm) consumed fish (% volume = 20–100; prey isotope % = 21.5 – 42.7). Salmonids exhibited high interspecific niche overlap, with lake trout (SEAB = 22.9 ‰2) and brown trout (18.6 ‰2) having the largest isotopic niche size, and Atlantic salmon having the smallest (2.7 ‰2). Our study addressed a knowledge gap in trophic ecology between mostly stream-dwelling juvenile and open lake adult salmonid life stages, revealing differences in diet but comparable condition metrics which suggests different strategies to optimise performance in the nearshore environment.

Temperature-dependent plasticity mediates heart morphology and thermal performance of cardiac function in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

In many fishes, upper thermal tolerance is thought to be limited in part by the heart's ability to meet increased oxygen demands during periods of high temperature. Temperature-dependent plasticity within the cardiovascular system may help fish cope with the thermal stress imposed by increasing water temperatures. In this study, we examined plasticity in heart morphology and function in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) reared under control (+0°C) or elevated (+4°C) temperatures. Using non-invasive Doppler echocardiography, we measured the effect of acute warming on maximum heart rate, stroke distance and derived cardiac output. A 4°C increase in average developmental temperature resulted in a >5°C increase in the Arrhenius breakpoint temperature for maximum heart rate and enabled the hearts of these fish to continue beating rhythmically to temperatures approximately 2°C higher than for control fish. However, these differences in thermal performance were not associated with plasticity in maximum cardiovascular capacity, as peak measures of heart rate, stroke distance and derived cardiac output did not differ between temperature treatments. Histological analysis of the heart revealed that while ventricular roundness and relative ventricle size did not differ between treatments, the proportion of compact myocardium in the ventricular wall was significantly greater in fish raised at elevated temperatures. Our findings contribute to the growing understanding of how the thermal environment can affect phenotypes later in life and identify a morphological strategy that may help fishes cope with acute thermal stress.

Proteomic analysis of temperature-dependent developmental plasticity within the ventricle of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

In teleosts, cardiac plasticity plays a central role in mediating thermal acclimation. Previously, we demonstrated that exposure to elevated temperatures throughout development (+4°C) improved acute thermal tolerance of the heart in juvenile Atlantic salmon. Fish raised in a warmer thermal regime also displayed higher proportions of compact myocardium within their ventricles. In the present study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms supporting this temperature-specific phenotype by comparing relative protein abundance in ventricular tissue from the same experimental fish using mass spectrometry. We provide the first description of the ventricular proteome in juvenile Atlantic salmon and identify 79 proteins displaying differential abundance between developmental treatments. The subset of proteins showing higher abundance in fish raised under elevated temperatures was significantly enriched for processes related to ventricular tissue morphogenesis, and changes in protein abundance support a hypertrophic model of compact myocardium growth. Proteins associated with the vasculature and angiogenesis also showed higher abundance in the warm-developmental group, suggesting capillarization of the compact myocardium in the hearts of these fish. Proteins related to oxidative metabolism and protein homeostasis also displayed substantive shifts in abundance between developmental treatments, underscoring the importance of these processes in mediating thermal plasticity of cardiac function. While rapid growth under warm developmental temperatures has been linked to cardiomyopathies in farmed salmon, markers of cardiac pathology were not implicated in the present study. Thus, our findings offer a molecular footprint for adaptive temperature-dependent plasticity within the ventricle of a juvenile salmonid.

Mineral trial on juvenile Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) in freshwater

Mineral trial on juvenile Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) in freshwater

Growth-enhanced salmon modify stream ecosystem functioning.

Use of fast-growing domesticated and/or genetically modified strains of fish is becoming increasingly common in aquaculture, increasing the likelihood of deliberate or accidental introductions into the wild. To date, their ecological impacts on ecosystems remain to be quantified. Here, using a controlled phenotype manipulation by implanting growth hormone in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), we found that growth-enhanced fish display changes in several phenotypic traits known to be important for ecosystem functioning, such as habitat use, morphology and excretion rate. Furthermore, these phenotypic changes were associated with significant impacts on the invertebrate community and key stream ecosystem functions such as primary production and leaf-litter decomposition. These findings provide novel evidence that introductions of growth-enhanced fish into the wild can affect the functioning of natural ecosystems and represent a form of intraspecific invasion. Consequently, environmental impact assessments of growth-enhanced organisms need to explicitly consider ecosystem-level effects.

Does Vaterite Otolith Deformation Affect Post-Release Survival and Predation Susceptibility of Hatchery-Reared Juvenile Atlantic Salmon?

Sagittal otoliths are calcareous structures in the inner ear of fishes involved in hearing and balance. They are usually composed of aragonite; however, aragonite can be replaced by vaterite, a deformity which is more common in hatchery-reared than in wild fish. Vaterite growth may impair hearing and balance and affect important fitness-related behaviours such as predator avoidance. Captive rearing techniques that prevent hearing loss may have the potential to improve fish welfare and the success of restocking programmes. The aim of this study was to test the effect of structural tank enrichment on vaterite development in the otoliths of hatchery-reared juvenile Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, and to assess the effects of vaterite on immediate predation mortality and long-term survival after release into the wild. Fry were reared in a structurally enriched or in a conventional rearing environment and given otolith marks using alizarin during the egg stage to distinguish between the treatment groups. Otoliths were scrutinised for the presence and coverage of vaterite at 6, 13, and 16 weeks after start feeding, and the growth traits were measured for enriched and control fry when housed in tanks. In a subsequent field experiment, juveniles were released in the Rasdalen river (western Norway), and otoliths of enriched reared and control reared fry were scrutinised from samples collected immediately prior to release, from predator (trout Salmo trutta) stomachs 48 h after release and from recaptures from the river 2–3 months after release. Vaterite otoliths occurred as early as 6 weeks after start feeding in hatchery-reared S. salar. Vaterite occurrence and coverage increased with fish length. Enriched rearing had no direct effect on vaterite formation, but enriched reared fry grew slower than control fry. After release into the wild, fewer salmon fry with vaterite otoliths had been eaten by predators, and a higher proportion of fry with vaterite otoliths than those lacking vaterite were recaptured in the river 2–3 months after release. Contrary to expectations, this suggests that vaterite does not increase predation mortality nor reduce survival rates in the wild during the early life stages.