Justice Statistics Research Articles

State-level changes in racial disparities in probation and parole rates in the United States, 2001-2018.

Although the public health field has increasingly studied the collateral consequences of incarceration, we know little about the health consequences of other forms of criminal legal contact, including probation and parole. Understanding spatial and racial-ethnic variation in probation/parole across US states provides new insights into how community supervision impacts population health disparities. However, state-level probation/parole prevalence has not been adequately described. Using data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Census for the years 2001 to 2018, we provide the first state-level estimates of probation and parole populations by race over time in the US. We find large variation in disparities across states and time that is masked by national-level estimates. The US probation population decreased, and its racial composition remained steady between 2001 and 2018. However, in all but five states, the Black-White gap in probation rates declined. The Black-White gap in parole rates declined in all but seven states. The extent to which these race-specific changes in probation or parole over time reflect adjudication processes favoring White people, and/or affect population health, warrant further investigation.

The Evolution of the Measurement of Rape and Sexual Assault Over 50 Years: Milestones, Definitions, Operationalizations, and Classifications

For the past 50 years, the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) has been committed to improving crime victimization estimates through three crime surveys: the National Crime Survey (1972–1991), National Crime Victimization Survey (1992–2023), and the redesigned National Crime Victimization Survey (2024–present). This article explores the progression of how rape and sexual assault (RSA) have been measured across these surveys, highlighting key milestones, legislative impacts, and measurement changes. The key aspects include the transformation of sexual victimization definitions, the focus on behaviors and tactics in the type of crime classification, and the expansion from solely measuring rape to a broader spectrum of RSA. The dedication to refining RSA screening and classification methods through extensive testing and evaluation is evident. This evolution demonstrates BJS’s ongoing efforts to produce accurate RSA estimates and adapt to changing societal and legislative contexts.

Abstract 4118402: National Burden, Trends, and Racial Disparities in Cardiovascular Mortality Among Incarcerated Individuals in the United States from 2000-2019

Background: Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the U.S. Mass incarceration is a national public health issue, with the US having the highest incarceration rate in the world. However, there is a paucity of data on cardiovascular mortality among incarcerated individuals, or how the racialization of mass incarceration contributes to cardiovascular health inequities. The aim of this study was to evaluate the burden of cardiovascular mortality, trends in cardiovascular deaths, as well as racial differences in cardiovascular death and receipt of care among those incarcerated in U.S. state prisons from 2001-2019. Methods: We utilized the database “Mortality in Correctional Institutions: ICD-10 Diagnosis Codes for Natural Deaths Occurring in State Prison or Local Jail Custody, 2000-2019” from the United States Bureau of Justice Statistics. This database collects inmate death records from each of the nation’s 50 state prison systems. We extracted all deaths related to cardiovascular causes to evaluate the epidemiology of individuals with cardiovascular death, trends in cardiovascular death rates, and differences between racial groups. Results: From 2000-2019, there were a total of 18227 (28.0%) deaths secondary to cardiovascular causes among those incarcerated in US state prisons. The rate of CV death increased from 71.3 per 100,000 persons in 2001 to 94 per 100,000 persons in 2019. Black individuals who died while incarcerated had higher rates of death related to a cardiovascular cause than White individuals (30.9% vs. 27.8%, p<0.0001). Black individuals had higher rates of death due to ischemic heart disease (23.2% vs 21.9%) and hypertensive-related cardiovascular deaths (3.71% vs. 2.96%) as compared to white counterparts (p<0.001). Black incarcerated individuals who died from a cardiovascular cause were less likely to be evaluated by a medical provider in prison (78.6% vs. 81.9%; p<0.0001), were less likely to have a diagnostic test performed (65.3% vs. 69%, p<0.0001), were less likely to receive medications (68.1% vs 72.6%, p<0.001), as well as treatment other than medications (49.1% vs 52.8%, p <0.0001) for the condition which caused death as compared to White counterparts. Conclusions: Deaths due to cardiovascular causes are high among patients incarcerated in US state prisons. Combined with decarceral efforts to address mass incarceration, strategies to ensure quality and equitable cardiovascular care for this population are needed.

Examining American Indian Disadvantage: Social Context and Federal Sentencing Decisions

Prior literature suggests that Blacks and Latinos are sentenced more harshly than similarly situated White offenders. Still, less is known about whether disparities extend to other minority groups, and consequently little is known about the treatment of these neglected groups. Recent research has investigated social context and disparities. However, this body of research has not assessed if social context impacts how other minority groups are treated. To address this gap, this manuscript focuses on American Indians, how they are treated, and if social context amplifies American Indian disadvantage. The minority threat perspective is used and data is analyzed from the Federal Justice Statistics Program Data Series and the U.S. Census. Implications for theory, research, and policy are discussed.

Levels and Changes in Defensive Firearm Use by US Crime Victims, 1987‒2021.

Objectives. To examine levels and temporal changes in the frequency of defensive gun use by US crime victims. Methods. We computed national-level counts of criminal incidents involving firearm defense during 3 periods: 1993 to 2005, 2007 to 2015, and 2016 to 2021. We also considered earlier national estimates for 1987 to 1990. The data came from the US Bureau of Justice Statistics National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). We counted firearm defenses as incidents in which victims used a gun to threaten or attack an offender. Results. Over the 4 periods, for all crimes, victims reported gun defenses in an average range of between 61 000 and 65 000 incidents per year. This included between 38 000 and 53 000 personal (violent) incidents and between 12 000 and 23 000 household (property) incidents. Conclusions. Firearm defenses occurred at a relatively low and nearly constant level over the 35-year period. Although some victims use guns for defense, these uses are infrequent compared with the incidence of crime. Public Health Implications. The continuing relative rarity of NCVS armed defenses suggests that claims about the protective benefits of widespread firearm ownership may be overstated. (Am J Public Health. 2024;114(12):1384-1387. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2024.307838).

Health, Access to Care, and Financial Barriers to Care Among People Incarcerated in US Prisons

Decades-old data indicate that people imprisoned in the US have poor access to health care despite their constitutional right to care. Most prisons impose co-payments for at least some medical visits. No recent national studies have assessed access to care or whether co-pays are associated with worse access. To determine the proportion of people who are incarcerated with health problems or pregnancy who used health services, changes in the prevalence of those conditions since 2004, and the association between their state's standard prison co-payment and care receipt in 2016. This cross-sectional analysis was conducted in October 2023 and used data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics' 2016 Survey of Prison Inmates, a nationally representative sample of adults in state or federal prisons, with some comparisons to the 2004 version of that survey. The state's standard, per-visit co-payment amount in 2016 compared with weekly earnings at the prison's minimum wage. Self-reported prevalence of 13 chronic physical conditions, 6 mental health conditions, and current severe psychological distress assessed using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale; proportion of respondents with such problems who did not receive any clinician visit or treatment; and adjusted odds ratios (aORs) comparing the likelihood of no clinician visit according to co-payment level. Of 1 421 700 (unweighted: n = 24 848; mean [SD] age, 35.3 [0.3] years; 93.2% male individuals) prison residents in 2016, 61.7% (up from 55.9% in 2004) reported 1 or more chronic physical conditions; among them, 13.8% had received no medical visit since incarceration. A total of 40.1% of respondents reported ever having a mental health condition (up from 24.5% in 2004), of whom 33.0% had received no mental health treatment. A total of 13.3% of respondents met criteria for severe psychological distress, of whom 41.7% had not received mental health treatment in prison. Of state prison residents, 90.4% were in facilities requiring co-payments, including 63.3% in facilities with co-payments exceeding 1 week's prison wage. Co-payments, particularly when high, were associated with not receiving a needed health care visit (co-pay ≤1 week's wage: aOR, 1.43; 95% CI, 1.10-1.86; co-pay >1 week's wage: aOR, 2.17; 95% CI, 1.61-2.93). This cross-sectional study found that many people who are incarcerated with health problems received no care, particularly in facilities charging co-payments for medical visits.

Collective bargaining, police pay, and racial differences in police lethality rates

ABSTRACT This study examines the interaction effects of police collective bargaining authorization and police pay on racial differences in police-related fatalities. Using data from Fatal Encounters, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, and other publicly available databases, we applied entropy-weighted regressions to a balanced panel of 282 local police departments from 2000 to 2013 in the United States. We found that collective bargaining authorization is not directly associated with police-caused deaths. However, results indicate that higher median salaries for city police officers directly and meaningfully contribute to fewer people killed by police actions. When considering interactive effects, our findings suggest that police unionization offsets the life-saving benefits of higher relative pay, leading to more Black citizens dying from police intervention as salaries increase in agencies with collective bargaining authorization. Our findings demonstrate authorities should consider the potentially fatal and inequitable consequences for citizens during collective bargaining and salary-setting negotiations.

Promatics of Sexual Violence Based On The Direction of Government Policy In Handling It

Cases of sexual violence are increasing from year to year, not only in Indonesia but also in several other countries, data from the National Commission for Women shows that cases of sexual violence continue to increase every year, as well as data from the Department of Justice , Office of Justice Program, Bureau of Justice Statistics, The National Crime Victims Survey shows a 68-second increase in Americans experiencing sexual assault. This shows that regulations regarding sexual violence are still weak. In Indonesia, even the Philippines, the Netherlands and the United States have regulated acts of sexual violence, but in substance it is still very lacking so that it has not been able to overcome the acts of sexual violence that have occurred so far. This study intends to analyze how the government should act in reducing the number of victims of sexual violence in Indonesia. Even though to date the government has issued laws and regulations related to sexual violence in 2022 which are issued through law, their implementation has not been optimal. Therefore, there is still a great need to improve government policy measures. Such as revising regulations relating to forms of sexual violence. Apart from that, the government must also be able to make derivative regulations for the Sexual Crimes Law so that they can be used legally.

Jail Characteristics and Availability of Opioid Treatment Services: Results from a Nationally Representative Survey.

The current wave of the opioid epidemic has contributed to a record number of drug-related overdoses and a significant proportion of people who experience opioid use disorder are admitted to local jails. These correctional facilities serve as the principal entry point to the criminal justice system as nearly every person who is taken into custody is admitted to a local detention center. Although jails are recognized as primary intervention points for people who may require treatment for opioid use disorder, services in these facilities remain deficient. The absence of jail-based treatment has become a pressing concern as the number of drug-related deaths in custody continues to rise and the risk of post-release overdose also remains high. The present study draws on the opioid-related module of the 2019 Bureau of Justice Statistics' Census of Jails to assess the relationships between the characteristics of 2588 local detention centers and the availability of treatment services. These specific approaches included screening for opioid use disorder, providing medication to manage withdrawal symptoms, administering medication for opioid use disorder (MOUD), providing overdose reversal medication at the time of release, and linking people with community-based care following release from the detention center. The results demonstrate facilities located in the Northeast, larger jails, those in urban areas, and detention centers with higher turnover rates are significantly more likely to provide a wider variety of opioid treatment services. These findings have important implications for the prioritization of policies and the allocation of resources to support the adoption of opioid treatment services in local jails.

Abstract MP06: Cardiovascular Disease in Community-Dwelling US Adults Involved With the Criminal Justice System: A Simulation Analysis

Introduction: Approximately 4.4 million US adults live in the community while on probation or parole. They have disproportionately elevated cardiovascular risk factors, morbidity and mortality, along with limited access to healthcare. However, the long-term burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in this population is uncertain. We developed a simulation model to quantify cardiovascular risk and adverse events in community-dwelling US adults involved with the criminal justice system, leveraging all known sources of data on this under-studied, high-risk population. Methods: We adapted the CVD Policy Model, a validated state-transition simulation model of CVD in all US adults, using input data specific to 25-54 year-old individuals on probation or parole in 2018. Population size was defined using estimates from the Bureau of Justice Statistics. CVD risk factor burden was approximated by re-weighting data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey years 2005 to 2018 to match demographic, socioeconomic, and health variables among individuals reporting past-year probation or parole in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. CVD incidence and mortality rates were calibrated to outcomes in cohort studies and vital statistics data. Outcomes were myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, and death over a 10-year horizon (2018-2027) and were compared with projections for an age- and gender-matched cohort of adults in the general US population. We also examined projected reductions in CVD outcomes over 10 years that could be expected if risk factor distributions in the probation/parole population were similar to distributions observed for the general US population. Results: The simulated cohort consisted of 2.9 million adults 25-54 years of age on probation or parole in 2018; 71% were men, 30% were living below the poverty line, and 57% had no regular access to healthcare. An estimated 61% were current smokers, 29% had BP ≥130/80 mmHg, and 8% had diabetes. The study cohort was projected to experience between 36,400 and 69,600 incident MIs and between 22,400 and 37,500 incident strokes over 10 years. This would be 1.4-2.6 times the CVD incidence in age- and gender-matched adults in the general US population. Lowering rates of active smoking in those on probation or parole to rates observed for the general US population (i.e., from 61% to 21%) would reduce MI and stroke events by 16,400 to 29,100 over 10 years, a 27% reduction from current projections. Discussion: We developed and calibrated a computer simulation model to quantify the burden of CVD in community-dwelling US adults followed by the US justice system. We project that adults on probation or parole have higher CVD risk than the general US population. Future work will leverage this platform to estimate the impact of clinical, community, and policy interventions to reduce CVD burden in this vulnerable population.

Abstract P234: Prison Inmate Awareness of Heart Disease Status While Incarcerated in State and Federal Prisons, 2016

Background: Heart disease (HD) is the leading cause of death of inmates incarcerated in state prisons in the US, as it is in the general population. However, in 2001-2019 the mortality rate of HD in incarcerated populations was reported to increase, while it decreased in the US population. . This is despite constitutionally mandated access to healthcare. There are few studies assessing healthcare utilization in prison populations. The 2016 Survey of Prison Inmates is exceptional in that it explores utilization across both state and federal prisons, and allows us to explore factors that may contribute to decreased understanding of health status. Methods: This study is a secondary analysis of the 2016 Survey of Prison Inmates collected by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, a cross sectional survey of the state and federal prison population across the United States. Data collection took place from January to October 2016. All participants were above 18 years of age, incarcerated across 1808 state and 193 federal institutions. All analysis was restricted to those with a reported history HD, which included heart attack, coronary heart disease, angina, congestive heart failure, or other heart problems. Awareness of their current heart disease status was operationalized by combining self-reported history and current heart disease status. Results: When asked, 27.9% of survey respondents reported a history of heart disease but denied currently having heart disease. Yet 89.3% of these unaware patients had seen a healthcare provider since incarceration. . Independent of age, those with difficulty walking/climbing stairs or doing activities alone, and older in age (all p<0.01) were more likely to be aware of HD status. Factors including veteran status (OR=0.7; CI: 0.5-0.9), homeless 30 days prior to incarceration (37.8% vs 27.7%; p=0.036) and those experiencing homelessness before 18 years of age (40.4% vs 25.8%; p<0.001) were associated with being unaware of heart disease status. Individuals with ADD/ADHD (prevalence=23.7%) had weaker (non-significant) association between awareness of their heart disease and healthcare utilizing behavior (Mantel-Haenszel test for heterogeneity; p=0.006). Meanwhile, those without ADD/ADHD had nearly 4 times the odds of correctly reporting their heart disease status if they had seen a provider (OR=3.90; CI: 2.32-6.59), compared to those who hadn’t seen one. Those with a history of ADD/ADHD were more likely to report experiencing homelessness prior to age 18 (p<<0.001), 30 days prior to arrest (p=0.002) and 12 months prior to arrest (p<0.001). Conclusions: Awareness was associated with utilizing healthcare since incarceration, but only 72.4% were clear that HD is a chronic condition. The associations between awareness and disability and other life experiences show an influence from socioeconomic status which could inform much-needed health promotion programming.

Suicide mortality among individuals in federal prisons compared with the general population: a retrospective cohort study in the USA from 2009 to 2020

IntroductionSuicide is one of the leading causes of death in US prisons. Yet, administrative data lags years behind and reporting rarely accounts for differing age distributions between suicide rates between...

Health Conditions and Treatment Utilization Among Older Male Veterans Incarcerated in Prisons.

More than 50,000 older male veterans incarcerated in prisons are expected to return to their communities and utilize the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) and community healthcare systems. To support the continuity of healthcare and overall successful community reentry of older incarcerated veterans, an understanding of their health profiles and treatment utilization while in correctional care is needed. To assess the health status of older male veterans incarcerated in state prisons and explore demographic, military, and VHA-related factors associated with medical conditions, disabilities, behavioral conditions, and medical and behavioral treatment utilization. Cross-sectional observational study of 880 male veterans aged 50 + incarcerated in state prisons using data from the 2016 Bureau of Justice Statistics Survey of Prison Inmates. Veteran status, self-report health status, and treatment utilization since prison admission. Prevalence rates for conditions and treatment utilization were calculated. Logistic regression models were used to examine the association of characteristics with conditions and treatment utilization. Among the 880 older male veterans in state prisons, the majority reported having a current medical condition (79.3%) or disability (61.6%), almost half had history of a mental health condition (44.5%), and more than a quarter (29%) had a substance use disorder. Compared to White veterans, Black veterans were less likely to report a disability or mental health condition. Few demographic, military, and VA-related characteristics were associated with medical or behavioral conditions or treatment utilization. Our results suggest that the VHA and community healthcare systems need to be prepared to address medical and disability conditions among the majority of older male veterans who will be leaving prison and returning to their communities. Integrated medical and behavioral healthcare delivery models may be especially important for these veterans as many did not receive behavioral health treatment while in prison.

Rates of crime decrease on campus — except for sexual assault

Overall, crimes on college campuses were generally less prevalent in 2020 than a decade earlier — but forcible sex offenses increased. That finding comes from the Report on Indicators of School Crimes and Safety: 2022, released by the U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, and Department of Education.

Impact of new abortion restrictions on people in prison: Estimated number of incarcerated people without abortion access and distance to abortion providers

ObjectivesThis study aimed to estimate the annual number of incarcerated pregnant people in state and federal prisons needing an abortion. Study designWe used 2021 Bureau of Justice Statistics data and prior studies’ findings to estimate the number of pregnant incarcerated people, then calculated state-specific abortion ratios to determine the number potentially needing an abortion. ResultsOf 638 pregnant people incarcerated in prisons annually, 110 would be expected to need an abortion, including 55 in states where abortion is currently banned or restricted. ConclusionsUnder Dobbs, many incarcerated pregnant people will be forced to continue unwanted pregnancies to term.

Disability Justice and the Americans with Disabilities Act: An Opportunity for Social Work.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, over 61 million Americans have a disability, which translates to about 26 percent of the national population. The most common types of disability are physical (13.7 percent), or those that impact mobility, and intellectual (10.8 percent), or those related to cognitive processing. The Bureau of Justice Statistics has reported that 32 percent of people in state prisons and 40 percent of people in county jails have at least one disability, rates that demonstrate alarming disproportionality. Yet the history of the disability rights movement, the impact of the Americans with Disabilities Act for people with disabilities who are involved with the criminal justice system, and the implications of disability justice and critical disability theory for the field of social work are not well understood. The purpose of this article is to review these under-recognized topics and offer recommendations for addressing this neglected area of social work education, research, policy, and practice.

Exploring the Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Practice in Criminal Law System

The criminal justice system in Indonesia, like many other countries, faces the challenge of effectively addressing crime while ensuring justice for victims and rehabilitation for offenders. In response to the limitations of the traditional punitive approach, restorative justice has emerged as an alternative paradigm, emphasizing healing, reconciliation, and community involvement. This research study aims to trace the effectiveness of restorative justice practices within the Indonesian criminal justice system through a comparative analysis. By employing a mixed-methods approach, the research combines quantitative data from official criminal justice statistics and qualitative data from interviews, case studies, and focus groups. The findings reveal that restorative justice cases demonstrate higher rates of victim engagement, increased offender accountability, and lower recidivism rates compared to conventional cases. Victims express higher levels of satisfaction with the restorative justice process, and practitioners acknowledge its potential benefits. However, challenges in implementation and the need for community support are also evident. The research contributes to the ongoing discourse on criminal justice reform in Indonesia and provides evidence-based insights to guide policymakers in developing a more balanced and effective approach to addressing crime and promoting justice, healing, and restoration within society.

Pregnant Prisoners in Shackles

Pregnant Prisoners in Shackles

Jail Conditions And Mortality: Death Rates Associated With Turnover, Jail Size, And Population Characteristics.

In 2019, there were approximately ten million admissions to more than 3,000 US jails-facilities that had become increasingly deadly in the prior decades. Between 2000 and 2019, jail mortality rose by approximately 11percent. Although incarceration is widely viewed as a health hazard, relationships between jail conditions and jail deaths are understudied. Using data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics and Reuters journalists, we assessed mortality rates and conditions in approximately 450 US jails in the period 2008-19. During those years, certain facility characteristics were related to mortality. For example, high turnover rates and high populations were associated with higher death rates. Greater proportions of non-Hispanic Black people in jail populations were associated with more deaths due to illness, and the presence of larger shares of non-US citizens was associated with lower overall mortality rates. Our findings suggest that heavy reliance on incarceration and the prevalence of broad health disparities escalate jail mortality.

Comparison of Demographic Characteristics and Social Determinants of Health Between Adults With Diagnosed HIV and All Adults in the U.S.

Quantifying disparities in social determinants of health between people with HIV and the total population could help address health inequities, and ensure health and well-being among people with HIV in the U.S., but estimates are lacking. Several representative data sources were used to assess differences in social determinants of health between adults with diagnosed HIV (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Medical Monitoring Project) and the total adult population (U.S. Census Bureau's decennial census, American Community Survey, Household Pulse Survey, the Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplements; the Department of Housing and Urban Development's point-in-time estimates of homelessness; and the Bureau of Justice Statistics). The differences were quantified using standardized prevalence differences and standardized prevalence ratios, adjusting for differences in age, race/ethnicity, and birth sex between people with HIV and the total U.S. population. Overall, 35.6% of people with HIV were living in a household with an income at or below the federal poverty level, and 8.1% recently experienced homelessness. Additionally, 42.9% had Medicaid and 27.6% had Medicare; 39.7% were living with a disability. Over half (52.3%) lived in large central metropolitan counties and 20.6% spoke English less than very well based on survey responses. After adjustment, poverty (standardized prevalence difference=25.1%, standardized prevalence ratio=3.5), homelessness (standardized prevalence difference=8.5%, standardized prevalence ratio=43.5), coverage through Medicaid (standardized prevalence difference=29.5%, standardized prevalence ratio=3.0) or Medicare (standardized prevalence difference=7.8%), and disability (standardized prevalence difference=30.3%, standardized prevalence ratio=3.0) were higher among people with HIV than the total U.S. population. The percentage of people with HIV living in large central metropolitan counties (standardized prevalence difference=13.4%) or who were recently incarcerated (standardized prevalence ratio=5.9) was higher than the total U.S. population. These findings provide a baseline for assessing national-level disparities in social determinants of health between people with HIV and the total U.S. population, and it can be used as a model to assess local disparities. Addressing social determinants of health is essential for achieving health equity, requiring a multipronged approach with interventions at the provider, facility, and policy levels.