Juno Microwave Radiometer Research Articles

Alkali metal depletion in the deep Jovian atmosphere: The role of anions

The Juno Microwave Radiometer has allowed observation of Jupiter's atmosphere down to previously inaccessible depths, although the complexity of the atmospheric dynamics has complicated analysis. The longest-wavelength channel (600 MHz) is sensitive to pressure levels of hundreds of bars, and has observed opacity sources other than the known gaseous and cloud components, likely caused by thermally ionized free electrons from alkali metal vapor. We extend previous analysis of limb darkening at these wavelengths, using radiative transfer and thermal equilibrium modeling, by considering the effect of anions in the deep Jovian atmosphere, which act as a sink for free electrons and will thus decrease opacity for a given alkali metal abundance. We show that MWR observations are consistent with a sodium and potassium abundance on the order of 0.1× solar around the 1-kilobar level, higher than previously estimated but still substantially depleted compared to other heavy elements, a value that would be within the range of observed alkali metal abundances on giant exoplanets; alternatively, MWR observations may be consistent with 3× solar sodium abundance, but only if potassium is even more strongly depleted. Such depletion may be the result of either chemical processes yet deeper in the atmosphere, such as in the silicate clouds, or of a long-lived stable layer shallower than the alkali salt clouds.

Laboratory measurements of the 15–46 cm wavelength opacity of water vapor under temperature conditions characteristic of the deep atmosphere of Jupiter

The Juno Microwave Radiometer (MWR) has six channels ranging from 600 MHz (50 cm) to 22 GHz (1.3 cm) and has the ability to peer deep into the Jovian atmosphere. Previous laboratory measurements determined the microwave opacity of ammonia and water vapor at pressures and temperatures corresponding to regions sensed by MWR channels 2–6 which function between 1.25 GHz and 22 GHz (Hanley et al., 2009, Devaraj et al., 2014, Bellotti et al., 2016/2017, Karpowicz and Steffes, 2011a, b). The discovery of significant ammonia and water variability at pressures >30 bars (Bolton et al., 2021) indicated the need to provide laboratory opacity measurements at the higher temperatures characteristic of the conditions at higher pressures. Of specific interest is the region sensed by MWR's lowest frequency which senses regions where the physical temperatures reach well above 750 K. Laboratory measurements of the microwave opacity of water vapor at 760 K have been conducted in the frequency range from 649 to 2001 MHz (wavelengths from 15 to 46 cm). These are the first such laboratory measurements known to be conducted at such high temperatures and long wavelengths, and can resolve the inconsistency between the water vapor self-continuum opacity components of the existing models. The results from these laboratory measurements provide better insight into the effects of water vapor on Jupiter's 50 cm wavelength emission and will provide more reliable retrievals of atmospheric composition in the deep atmosphere of Jupiter.Print.

Ammonia Abundance Derived from Juno MWR and VLA Observations of Jupiter

The vertical distribution of trace gases in planetary atmospheres can be obtained with observations of the atmosphere’s thermal emission. Inverting radio observations to recover the atmospheric structure, however, is nontrivial, and the solutions are degenerate. We propose a modeling framework to prescribe a vertical distribution of trace gases that combines a thermochemical equilibrium model with a vertical temperature structure and compare these results to models where ammonia can vary between predefined pressure nodes. We compare these model to nadir brightness temperatures and limb-darkening parameters, together with their uncertainties, which we reduced from the raw Juno Microwave Radiometer (MWR) data set. We then apply this framework to MWR observations during Juno’s first years of operation (perijove passes 1–12) and to longitudinally averaged latitude scans taken with the upgraded Very Large Array. We use the model to constrain the distribution of ammonia between −60° and 60° latitude and down to 100 bars. We constrain the ammonia abundance to be ppm ( solar abundance) and find a depletion of ammonia down to a depth of ∼20 bars, which supports the existence of processes that deplete the atmosphere below the ammonia and water cloud layers. At the equator we find an increase of ammonia with altitude, while the zones and belts in the midlatitudes can be traced down to levels where the atmosphere is well mixed. The latitudinal variation in the ammonia abundance appears to be opposite to that shown at higher altitudes, which supports the existence of a stacked-cell circulation model.

Observations and Electron Density Retrievals of Jupiter's Discrete Auroral Arcs Using the Juno Microwave Radiometer

AbstractJupiter's aurorae reflect microwave radiation emitted upward from Jupiter's atmosphere and downward from the cold sky above due to regions in the auroral plasma with increased electron densities. The lack of thermal radiation from the atmosphere was observed by Juno's Microwave Radiometer (MWR) on overflights of the aurorae during seven different orbits. Out of Juno's first 21 orbits, seven orbits inferred enhanced electron densities in Jupiter's auroral arcs. The most profound disruption in microwave emission was observed during Perijove 5. This perijove demonstrated the most significant cold spot for Channel 1 (0.6 GHz), with cold spots also present in Channels 2 (1.25 GHz) and 3 (2.6 GHz) in a location where the influence of Jupiter's moon, Io, likely increased the electron density in Jupiter's aurora. The maximum electron densities retrieved from Channel 1 are on the order of 3 × 109 cm−3, and in the presence of the Io flux tube, electron densities could reach 1010 cm−3 affecting Channels 2 and 3.

Mapping Jupiter's Mischief

AbstractNew results (Grassi et al., 2020, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JE006206) from analysis of Juno Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (JIRAM) 4‐ to 5‐μm observations provide updated latitudinal abundance profiles and measurements of the spatial distribution of H2O, NH3, PH3, GeH4, and AsH3 in Jupiter's troposphere near the 3‐ to 5‐bar level. The observed compositional variations provide new constraints on processes shaping chemical abundances in the cloud‐forming region of the troposphere, including vertical and horizontal atmospheric mixing, meteorology and cloud formation, transport‐induced quenching, and photochemistry. Along with recent results from the Juno Microwave Radiometer (MWR) for NH3 and H2O abundances far below the clouds, the JIRAM measurements of key disequilibrium tracer species can also be used to explore the coupled dynamics, chemistry, and bulk composition of Jupiter's deep atmosphere. The heavy element abundance inventory on Jupiter is a key constraint for the development and assessment of giant planet formation models. Combined with prior ground‐based, spacecraft, and in situ observations, the Juno results suggest near‐uniform (∼2–4 times) enhancements over protosolar abundances for several heavy elements in Jupiter's atmosphere, giving new clues about the composition of the material accreted, the timing and location of formation, and the internal evolution of Jupiter over the history of the solar system.

Storms and the Depletion of Ammonia in Jupiter: II. Explaining the Juno Observations

AbstractObservations of Jupiter's deep atmosphere by the Juno spacecraft have revealed several puzzling facts: The concentration of ammonia is variable down to pressures of tens of bars and is strongly dependent on latitude. While most latitudes exhibit a low abundance, the Equatorial Zone of Jupiter has an abundance of ammonia that is high and nearly uniform with depth. In parallel, the Equatorial Zone is peculiar for its absence of lightning, which is otherwise prevalent most everywhere else on the planet. We show that a model accounting for the presence of small‐scale convection and water storms originating in Jupiter's deep atmosphere accounts for the observations. Where strong thunderstorms are observed on the planet, we estimate that the formation of ammonia‐rich hail (“mushballs”) and subsequent downdrafts can deplete efficiency the upper atmosphere of its ammonia and transport it efficiently to the deeper levels. In the Equatorial Zone, the absence of thunderstorms shows that this process is not occurring, implying that small‐scale convection can maintain a near‐homogeneity of this region. A simple model satisfying mass and energy balance accounts for the main features of Juno's microwave radiometer observations and successfully reproduces the inverse correlation seen between ammonia abundance and the lightning rate as function of latitude. We predict that in regions where ammonia is depleted, water should also be depleted to great depths. The fact that condensates are not well mixed by convection until far deeper than their condensation level has consequences for our understanding of Jupiter's deep interior and of giant‐planet atmospheres in general.

The Range of Jupiter's Flow Structures That Fit the Juno Asymmetric Gravity Measurements

AbstractThe asymmetric gravity field measured by the Juno spacecraft has allowed the estimation of the depth of Jupiter's zonal jets, showing that the winds extend approximately 3,000 km beneath the cloud level. This estimate was based on an analysis using a combination of all measured odd gravity harmonics, J3, J5, J7, and J9, but the wind profile's dependence on each of them separately has yet to be investigated. Furthermore, these calculations assumed the meridional profile of the cloud‐level wind extends to depth. However, it is possible that the interior jet profile varies somewhat from that of the cloud level. Here we analyze in detail the possible meridional and vertical structure of Jupiter's deep jet streams that can match the gravity measurements. We find that each odd gravity harmonic constrains the flow at a different depth, with J3 the most dominant at depths below 3,000 km, J5 the most restrictive overall, whereas J9 does not add any constraint on the flow if the other odd harmonics are considered. Interior flow profiles constructed from perturbations to the cloud‐level winds allow a more extensive range of vertical wind profiles, yet when the meridional profiles differ substantially from the cloud level, the ability to match the gravity data significantly diminishes. Overall, we find that while interior wind profiles that do not resemble the cloud level are possible, they are statistically unlikely. Finally, inspired by the Juno microwave radiometer measurements, assuming the brightness temperature is dominated by the ammonia abundance, we find that depth‐dependent flow profiles are still compatible with the gravity measurements.

The water abundance in Jupiter’s equatorial zone

Oxygen is the most common element after hydrogen and helium in Jupiter's atmosphere, and may have been the primary condensable (as water ice) in the protoplanetary disk. Prior to the Juno mission, in situ measurements of Jupiter's water abundance were obtained from the Galileo Probe, which dropped into a meteorologically anomalous site. The findings of the Galileo Probe were inconclusive because the concentration of water was still increasing when the probe died. Here, we initially report on the water abundance in the equatorial region, from 0 to 4 degrees north latitude, based on 1.25 to 22 GHz data from Juno Microwave radiometer probing approximately 0.7 to 30 bars pressure. Because Juno discovered the deep atmosphere to be surprisingly variable as a function of latitude, it remains to confirm whether the equatorial abundance represents Jupiter's global water abundance. The water abundance at the equatorial region is inferred to be $2.5_{-1.6}^{+2.2}\times10^3$ ppm, or $2.7_{-1.7}^{+2.4}$ times the protosolar oxygen elemental ratio to H (1$\sigma$ uncertainties). If reflective of the global water abundance, the result suggests that the planetesimals formed Jupiter are unlikely to be water-rich clathrate hydrates.

First look at Jupiter's synchrotron emission from Juno's perspective

AbstractSince August 2016, measurements of Jupiter's microwave emissions at six wavelengths ranging from 1.3 cm to 50 cm have been made with the Juno Microwave Radiometer. In this paper, we introduce the first systematic set of in situ observations of synchrotron radiation in a polar plane while describing the modeling approach we use to analyze this data (collected 27 August 2016). Time series of brightness profiles at all six frequencies present similarities that are explained by the presence of known regions of intense synchrotron radiation. Our model predictions, though limited for now to the total intensity of the radiation, reproduce (qualitatively) the observation of temporal variations and allow to disentangle the synchrotron emission from the atmospheric emission. The discrepancies seen between the data and simulations confirm that physical conditions close to Jupiter affecting synchrotron emission (electron energy spectra, pitch angle distributions, and the magnetic environment) are different than we anticipated.

Implications of the ammonia distribution on Jupiter from 1 to 100 bars as measured by the Juno microwave radiometer.

The latitude-altitude map of ammonia mixing ratio shows an ammonia-rich zone at 0-5°N, with mixing ratios of 320-340 ppm, extending from 40-60 bars up to the ammonia cloud base at 0.7 bars. Ammonia-poor air occupies a belt from 5-20°N. We argue that downdrafts as well as updrafts are needed in the 0-5°N zone to balance the upward ammonia flux. Outside the 0-20°N region, the belt-zone signature is weaker. At latitudes out to ±40°, there is an ammonia-rich layer from cloud base down to 2 bars which we argue is caused by falling precipitation. Below, there is an ammonia-poor layer with a minimum at 6 bars. Unanswered questions include how the ammonia-poor layer is maintained, why the belt-zone structure is barely evident in the ammonia distribution outside 0-20°N, and how the internal heat is transported through the ammonia-poor layer to the ammonia cloud base.

The distribution of ammonia on Jupiter from a preliminary inversion of Juno microwave radiometer data

AbstractThe Juno microwave radiometer measured the thermal emission from Jupiter's atmosphere from the cloud tops at about 1 bar to as deep as a hundred bars of pressure during its first flyby over Jupiter (PJ1). The nadir brightness temperatures show that the Equatorial Zone is likely to be an ideal adiabat, which allows a determination of the deep ammonia abundance in the range ppm. The combination of Markov chain Monte Carlo method and Tikhonov regularization is studied to invert Jupiter's global ammonia distribution assuming a prescribed temperature profile. The result shows (1) that ammonia is depleted globally down to 50–60 bars except within a few degrees of the equator, (2) the North Equatorial Belt is more depleted in ammonia than elsewhere, and (3) the ammonia concentration shows a slight inversion starting from about 7 bars to 2 bars. These results are robust regardless of the choice of water abundance.

Preliminary results on the composition of Jupiter's troposphere in hot spot regions from the JIRAM/Juno instrument

AbstractThe Jupiter InfraRed Auroral Mapper (JIRAM) instrument on board the Juno spacecraft performed observations of two bright Jupiter hot spots around the time of the first Juno pericenter passage on 27 August 2016. The spectra acquired in the 4–5 µm spectral range were analyzed to infer the residual opacities of the uppermost cloud deck as well as the mean mixing ratios of water, ammonia, and phosphine at the approximate level of few bars. Our results support the current view of hot spots as regions of prevailing descending vertical motions in the atmosphere but extend this view suggesting that upwelling may occur at the southern boundaries of these structures. Comparison with the global ammonia abundance measured by Juno Microwave Radiometer suggests also that hot spots may represent sites of local enrichment of this gas. JIRAM also identifies similar spatial patterns in water and phosphine contents in the two hot spots.

MWR: Microwave Radiometer for the Juno Mission to Jupiter

The Juno Microwave Radiometer (MWR) is a six-frequency scientific instrument designed and built to investigate the deep atmosphere of Jupiter. It is one of a suite of instruments on NASA’s New Frontiers Mission Juno launched to Jupiter on August 5, 2011. The focus of this paper is the description of the scientific objectives of the MWR investigation along with the experimental design, observational approach, and calibration that will achieve these objectives, based on the Juno mission plan up to Jupiter orbit insertion on July 4, 2016. With frequencies distributed approximately by octave from 600 MHz to 22 GHz, the MWR will sample the atmospheric thermal radiation from depths extending from the ammonia cloud region at around 1 bar to pressure levels as deep as 1000 bars. The primary scientific objectives of the MWR investigation are to determine the presently unknown dynamical properties of Jupiter’s subcloud atmosphere and to determine the global abundance of oxygen and nitrogen, present in the atmosphere as water and ammonia deep below their respective cloud decks. The MWR experiment is designed to measure both the thermal radiation from Jupiter and its emission-angle dependence at each frequency relative to the atmospheric local normal with high accuracy. The antennas at the four highest frequencies (21.9, 10.0, 5.2, and 2.6 GHz) have ∼12° beamwidths and will achieve a spatial resolution approaching 600 km near perijove. The antennas at the lowest frequencies (0.6 and 1.25 GHz) are constrained by physical size limitations and have 20° beamwidths, enabling a spatial resolution of as high as 1000 km to be obtained. The MWR will obtain Jupiter’s brightness temperature and its emission-angle dependence at each point along the subspacecraft track, over angles up to 60° from the normal over most latitudes, during at least six perijove passes after orbit insertion. The emission-angle dependence will be obtained for all frequencies to an accuracy of better than one part in 10^3, sufficient to detect small variations in atmospheric temperature and absorber concentration profiles that distinguish dynamical and compositional properties of the deep Jovian atmosphere.

High-Precision Laboratory Measurements Supporting Retrieval of Water Vapor, Gaseous Ammonia, and Aqueous Ammonia Clouds with the Juno Microwave Radiometer (MWR)

The NASA Juno mission includes a six-channel microwave radiometer system (MWR) operating in the 1.3–50 cm wavelength range in order to retrieve abundances of ammonia and water vapor from the microwave signature of Jupiter (see Janssen et al. 2016). In order to plan observations and accurately interpret data from such observations, over 6000 laboratory measurements of the microwave absorption properties of gaseous ammonia, water vapor, and aqueous ammonia solution have been conducted under simulated Jovian conditions using new laboratory systems capable of high-precision measurement under the extreme conditions of the deep atmosphere of Jupiter (up to 100 bars pressure and 505 K temperature). This is one of the most extensive laboratory measurement campaigns ever conducted in support of a microwave remote sensing instrument. New, more precise models for the microwave absorption from these constituents have and are being developed from these measurements. Application of these absorption properties to radiative transfer models for the six wavelengths involved will provide a valuable planning tool for observations, and will also make possible accurate retrievals of the abundance of these constituents during and after observations are conducted.

Laboratory measurements of the 5–20 cm wavelength opacity of ammonia, water vapor, and methane under simulated conditions for the deep jovian atmosphere

Over the past decade, several extensive laboratory studies have been conducted of the microwave opacity of ammonia and water vapor in preparation for interpretation of the precise measurements of jovian microwave emission to be made with the Microwave Radiometer (MWR) instrument aboard the NASA Juno Mission. (See, e.g., Hanley et al. [2009] Icarus, 202, 316–335; Karpowicz and Steffes [2011a] Icarus 212, 210–223; Karpowicz and Steffes [2011b] Icarus 214, 783; Devaraj et al. [2014] Icarus, 241, 165–179) These works included models for the opacity of these constituents valid over the pressure and temperature ranges measured in the laboratory experiments (temperatures up to 500 K and pressures up to 100 bars). However, studies of the microwave emission made using these models indicate that significant contributions to the emission at the 24-cm and 50-cm wavelengths to be measured by the Juno MWR will be made by layers of the atmosphere with temperatures at or exceeding 600 K. While the ammonia opacity models described by Hanley et al. (2009) and Devraj et al. (2014) give consistent results at temperatures up to 500 K (within 6%), they diverge significantly at temperatures and pressures exceeding 550 K and 50 bars, respectively. Similarly, at temperatures above 500 K, the model for water vapor opacity developed by Karpowicz and Steffes (2011a,b) exhibits non-physical attributes. To resolve these ambiguities, we have conducted laboratory measurements of the microwave opacity of ammonia at temperatures up to 600 K and that for water vapor at temperatures up to 600 K. Additionally, since the microwave opacity of ammonia is influenced by pressure-broadening from methane (a significant constituent in jovian atmospheres), measurements of the effects of methane on the ammonia absorption spectrum have also been conducted. These measurements have resulted in updated models for the opacities of ammonia and water vapor under conditions of the deep jovian atmosphere.

The centimeter-wavelength opacity of ammonia under deep jovian conditions

Extensive measurements of the centimeter-wavelength opacity of ammonia have been conducted under simulated deep jovian conditions using an ultra-high-pressure measurement system built at Georgia Tech. Over 1000 measurements of the opacity of ammonia have been conducted in the 5–20cm wavelength range under simulated jovian conditions (pressures ranging from 0.05 to 99bars, temperatures from 330 to 500K) in a hydrogen–helium atmosphere. These and previous measurements conducted by Hanley et al. (Hanley et al. [2009]. Icarus, 202, 316–355) and Devaraj et al. (Devaraj et al. [2011]. Icarus, 212, 224–235) have been used to empirically derive a consistent ammonia opacity model for the 2mm–20cm wavelength range under the pressure and temperature conditions characteristic of the middle and deep jovian atmosphere. This model can be used reliably in the millimeter-wavelength range up to 3bars of pressure and temperatures up to 300K and in the centimeter-wavelength range up to 100bars of pressure and temperatures up to 500K. In addition, over 800 measurements of the 5–20cm wavelength opacity of ammonia pressure-broadened by water vapor, hydrogen and helium have been conducted under simulated deep jovian conditions for the first time to study the influence of water vapor on the ammonia absorption spectrum. Based on these measurements, a new model has been developed. These laboratory data and the model show that water vapor has a measurable effect on the opacity of ammonia under jovian conditions. The laboratory study and the models will help to improve our understanding of centimeter-wavelength absorption by ammonia in the jovian planets in general, and specifically, will improve retrievals of ammonia and water vapor from the Juno microwave radiometer (MWR) at Jupiter.

The microwave properties of the jovian clouds: A new model for the complex dielectric constant of aqueous ammonia

A new model for the complex dielectric constant of aqueous ammonia (NH4OH) under conditions characteristic of the jovian clouds has been developed. The new model is based on laboratory measurements in the frequency range between 2 and 8.5GHz for ammonia concentrations of 0–8.5% by volume and temperatures between 274 and 297K. The new model is based on the Meissner and Wentz (Meissner, T., Wentz, F.J. [2004]. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 42, 1836–1849) model of the complex dielectric constant of pure water but contains corrections for dissolved ammonia. Assuming Raleigh scattering, these measurements are applied to a cloud attenuation model to calculate the range of opacity of the jovian aqueous ammonia clouds. These measurements will improve our understanding of the data collected by the Juno microwave radiometer (MWR) by better characterizing the absorption properties of the aqueous ammonia present in the jovian atmosphere.The new model has been validated for temperatures up to 313K, and may be consistently used for the expected conditions for aqueous clouds in all of the outer planets. The model fits 60.26% of all laboratory measurements within 2-sigma uncertainty. Descriptions of the experimental setups, uncertainties associated with the laboratory measurements, the model fitting process, the new model, and its application to approximating jovian cloud opacity are provided.

Investigating the H2–He–H2O–CH4 equation of state in the deep troposphere of Jupiter

In this work, a new equation of state for a H2–He–H2O–CH4 mixture is presented. The equation is optimized for the deep jovian atmosphere (∼100bars) where the NASA Juno Microwave Radiometer (MWR) will probe. The methodology used is based upon that of Lemmon and Jacobsen (Lemmon, E.W., Jacobsen, R.T. [2004]. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 33, 593–+) and Kunz et al. (Kunz, O., Klimeck, R., Wagner, W., Jaeschke, M. [2006]. Technical Monograph, VDI-Verlag). This methodology is used in combination with available published thermodynamic measurements and with new pressure–Volume–Temperature (pVT) measurements of H2–H2O mixtures conducted with the jovian simulator described in Karpowicz and Steffes (Karpowicz, B.M., Steffes, P.G. [2011]. Icarus 212, 210–223). In addition to being necessary to interpret laboratory measurements, the new equation of state is important in developing temperature pressure profiles of the deep jovian atmosphere. This is demonstrated by incorporating the new equation of state into an updated version of the DeBoer (DeBoer, D.R. [1995]. Ph.D. Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology) Thermo-Chemical Model (TCM), and viewing its effect on the resulting simulated jovian atmospheric profiles.