Jul Aug Research Articles

On ozone's weekly cycle for different seasons in Arizona

This study advances insights on ozone (O3) concentration temporal cycles in Arizona, exploring differences between weekdays and weekends to understand the impact of anthropogenic activities on O3 fluctuations. By examining data from six areas across Arizona and with a more detailed look across the Phoenix metropolitan area, this study compares O3 and NO2 levels based on day of the week and time of day as well as during five distinct seasons between January 2015 and December 2021: fall (Sep–Nov), winter (Dec–Feb), spring (Mar–May), dry summer (June), and monsoon summer (Jul–Aug). Results highlight associations between O3 levels and O3 precursor levels, particularly for nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Results show that O3 levels are contingent on diurnal, day-of-week, and seasonally-dependent factors. This dependence influences the phenomena called the “weekend effect”, which is most clearly observed at urban sites across Arizona in fall and winter seasons, wherein O3 concentrations exhibit higher levels during weekends compared to weekdays. This study reveals opposing features during Arizona's warmer months and especially the monsoon summer period in which O3 regimes reverse from VOC-sensitive (in fall and winter) to transition and NOx-sensitive regimes. A specific case study for Phoenix during the first COVID-19 lockdown (spring 2020) accounting for planetary boundary layer height normalization of gas concentrations shows that although NO2 was reduced in March–April compared to other years, O3 was also reduced due to a regional O3 response as most areas surrounding western U.S. were typically either transitioning to, or already under, a NOx-limited regime. These findings provide insights into understanding the intricate relationship among anthropogenic emissions, seasonal fluctuations, and pollutant emissions and transport that influence O3 levels across Arizona, potentially providing guidance for future study designs focused on effective control strategies for the sensitive months with most exceedances (∼June–August).

Soundscapes of the central Red Sea mesophotic reef zones

Despite covering a large amount of seafloor & representing a significant percentage of coral reef ecosystem biomass, Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems (MCEs) globally have been largely understudied in comparison to their shallow counterparts. The Red Sea is a unique and biodiverse tropical ecosystem, where few mesophotic coral reefs have been studied. To define spatiotemporal activity of marine life and characterize the soundscapes of the MCE in the Central Red Sea, two locations were surveyed at 70–80 m, as well as at two adjacent shallow reef sites at ∼10 m depth, respectively, during the winter (Jan 2022) and summer (Jul–Aug 2022) seasons. The results of this study, the first of its kind in the Red Sea, show a clear shift in the soundscape between seasons, as well as between the shallow and mesophotic zones, driven mainly by a change in fish and invertebrate chorusing. During the study periods, temperature and oxygen levels in the mesophotic zone remained relatively stable, in comparison to the shallow reef zone which saw a steep temperature increase and large diel fluctuations in oxygen in the summer. Chronic exposure to shipping noise is evident across Red Sea MCE soundscapes and the resulting potential effects are discussed.

Persistent Meteorological Drought in the Yangtze River Basin during Summer–Autumn 2022: Relay Effects of Different Atmospheric Internal Variabilities

During the summer–autumn (July–October, Jul–Oct) period of 2022, the Yangtze River Basin (YRB) of China experienced an extreme meteorological drought, with Jul–Oct containing the lowest precipitation in the YRB since 1979. The possible causes of this drought were analyzed in the present study. Surprisingly, unlike many previous drought events, we found that this event was not characterized by a consistent atmospheric circulation anomaly regime throughout the entire drought period. Instead, two distinct circulation patterns were responsible for the precipitation deficit in two different stages, i.e., July–August (Jul–Aug) and September–October (Sep–Oct). In Jul–Aug, the YRB precipitation deficit primarily resulted from an intensified and northward-shifted East Asian subtropical jet, which allowed for an extremely northwestward shift of western Pacific subtropical highs, leading to an anomalous descending motion. Such circulation patterns in Jul–Aug originated from the dispersion of Rossby waves upstream from central Asia and Europe. Meanwhile, in Sep–Oct, the YRB drought was primarily attributed to a low-level cyclonic anomaly over the western North Pacific, which was closely associated with frequent tropical cyclones traveling across this region. Observational analysis and a model ensemble hindcast suggest that atmospheric internal variabilities dominated the drought process, while the SSTA, particularly the La Niña event, played a limited role. Therefore, this long-lasting extreme YRB meteorological drought was largely driven by the relay effects of different atmospheric internal variabilities in Jul–Aug and Sep–Oct, respectively, which shows limited model predictability and poses a great challenge for operational climate predictions.

(2959–2960) Proposals to conserve the name Abelmoschus against Laguna, and Pavonia, nom. cons., against the additional names Malvaviscus and Malachra (Malvaceae)

(2959–2960) Proposals to conserve the name <i>Abelmoschus</i> against <i>Laguna</i>, and <i>Pavonia</i>, nom. cons., against the additional names <i>Malvaviscus</i> and <i>Malachra</i> (<i>Malvaceae</i>)

(2961) Proposal to conserve Bellucia, nom. cons., against the additional names Myriaspora and Loreya (Melastomataceae: Henrietteeae)

(2961) Proposal to conserve <i>Bellucia</i>, nom. cons., against the additional names <i>Myriaspora</i> and <i>Loreya</i> (<i>Melastomataceae</i>: <i>Henrietteeae</i>)

EDITORIAL COMMENT

In the realm of surgical training, reliance on operative logs or number of hours worked is simply not adequate to assess and demonstrate competency. Indeed, a recent survey of US graduates of urology residency programs showed a perceived lack of confidence in several procedures that are commonly encountered in a general urologic practice. 1 Okhunov Z. Safiullah S. Patel R. et al. Evaluation of urology residency training and perceived resident abilities in the United States. J Surg Educ. 2019; 76 (Jul–Aug): 936-948 Crossref PubMed Scopus (39) Google Scholar

Influences of Weather Conditions, Natural Food Abundance, and the Spacing of Feeders on the Feeding-Table Use by Japanese Squirrels Sciurus lis in a Suburban Forest

The purpose of this study was to examine the influences of seasonal and annual changes in weather conditions, natural food abundance (pine seeds), and the spacing of feeders on the use of walnuts on feeding tables by Japanese squirrels (Sciurus lis) in a suburban forest in Nagoya City, in summer (Jul–Aug) and autumn (Sep–Oct) from 2019 to 2021. Feeder-use increased in severe weather conditions, i.e., low temperature and heavy rain in both seasons, and decreased in summer of the year when pine-seeds were abundant. Feeders were used more in autumn for hoarding before the winter. The intervals among eight feeding tables were widened during the study from c. 100 m in 2019–2020 to c. 300 m in 2021. In the years when the feeders were placed at short intervals, we found two behavioral modifications due to the supplemental feeding: a concentrated distribution of many individuals in 2019 and exclusive occupation by a particular female in 2020. In contrast, in 2021 with the feeding tables placed at wider intervals, the distribution of individuals expanded over the entire study area, and the use of supplementary feeding decreased, while seed consumption increased.

Summer Buffalo Milk Produced in China: A Desirable Diet Enriched in Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Amino Acids.

The objective of the study was to compare and reveal differences in basic chemical parameters, fatty acids, amino acids, and lipid quality indices of crossbred buffalo (swamp x river type) milk produced in summer and winter. The buffalo milk samples were collected in summer (Jul-Aug) and winter (Dec-Jan) from Hubei province, China. The samples were detected by using CombiFoss apparatus, gas chromatography, and an automated specialized amino acid analyzer. The results showed that the basic chemical parameters, fatty acid profiles, lipid quality indices, and amino acid profiles of crossbred buffalo milk differed between summer and winter. Specifically, summer buffalo milk exhibited a higher content of MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acids) and PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids) than winter buffalo milk. Summer buffalo milk had a lower content of major SFA (saturated fatty acids), a higher content of ω-3 and DFA (hypocholesterolemic fatty acids), a lower ω-6/ω-3 ratio, a higher value of 3 unsaturated fatty acid indices (C14, C16, C18), and a lower value of IA (index of atherogenicity) and IT (index of thrombogenicity) than winter buffalo milk. Additionally, 17 amino acids, including 8 EAA (essential amino acids) and 9 NEAA (non-essential amino acids) were higher in summer buffalo milk. These results indicated that summer buffalo milk was more health-beneficial than winter buffalo milk. Therefore, summer buffalo milk might be a desirable diet option for human nutrition and health. Our findings provide valuable information for the research and development of buffalo dairy products in China or other Asian countries.

(2851) Proposal to reject the name Senecio nebrodensis (Asteraceae)

(2851) Proposal to reject the name <i>Senecio nebrodensis</i> (<i>Asteraceae</i>)

ENSO and PDO related interannual variability in the north and east‐central part of the Bolivian Altiplano in South America

AbstractPrevious studies in this region focused on interannual and interdecadal precipitation variability during Dec–Feb (summer), relating the El Niño (EN) phase to droughts. Many studies examine this variability over different parts of the Altiplano, and mountainous terrain is well‐known for producing complex climate signals as well as variability over relatively small regions. Studies that have examined climate variability over the Altiplano suggest that the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) influence is complex. The monthly precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature from 1979 to 2017 are used to examine how ENSO and PDO (Pacific decadal oscillation) influence climate conditions. Power spectra analysis determined the periodicities, and analysis of variance was applied to standardized anomalies of the three variables to evaluate PDO and ENSO as variance factors. Frequency distributions were calculated by PDO and ENSO phases, and the differences were tested using the Chi‐square test. Our results suggest a PDO and ENSO influence, displaying more dry anomalies during DJF for EN/PDO(+), in agreement with a northward position of the Bolivian high. More wet anomalies during SON (Sep–Oct–Nov) in Neutral (NEU)/PDO(+) due to an upper‐level weak westerly flow during PDO(+). For maximum temperature, a reduction in cold anomalies during EN/PDO(−) was observed along with greater warm anomalies in JJA (Jun–Jul–Aug), SON and MAM (Mar–Apr–May). Similar results were observed for NEU phase, due to a greater occurrence of high pressures centres over the region during the PDO(−). Minimum temperature results displayed more variation within stations and a less clear response to ENSO compared to PDO. The research found a clear influence of PDO in the regional climatology associated with the influence of the upper‐level jet stream using the NCEP‐NCAR composites. This provided a better understanding of these two phenomena, which would allow the production of seasonal forecasts based on ENSO and PDO using both surface and upper‐level information.

First description of the nest and juveniles of the Coppery Metaltail (Metallura theresiae), with comments on hummingbird nestling obesity

I provide the first description of the nest and juveniles of the Coppery Metaltail (Metallura theresiae), a hummingbird endemic to Peru. The locality of Unchog, in the elfin forest of the Carpish mountains in Huánuco, is where I found this species nesting. My descriptions are based on 4 nests found on different occasions (April 2013, January 2014, and Jul–Aug 2014). Coppery Metaltail used mainly moss, lichen, lycopodium, and twigs as materials to build their nests. I found 3 nest locations: a tree branch, creek banks, and an abandoned hut. The mean internal diameter of nests was 34.45 mm long by 42.52 mm wide (n = 4). I only measured the depth of 3 of them (mean = 33.83 mm). Metaltail eggs were white and had a mean of 12.93 by 8.3 mm (n = 2). Fledglings (n = 2) were observed in July and one of them reached up to 144% the mass of an adult. I comment on other cases of nestling obesity for different species of hummingbirds. The Coppery Metaltail selects different substrates for nesting and might reproduce throughout the year.

Comparison of sheep and dairy cows for in vivo digestibility of perennial ryegrass

Sheep are often used as a proxy for dairy cows when measuring the digestibility of a feed. In recent years grassland management guidelines for ruminant animals have been re-evaluated in accordance with the progression in animal genetics and the acknowledgement that genetic potential has an influence on both feed intake and digestibility. Recommended pre-grazing herbage mass (HM) targets are now much lower with improved perennial ryegrass varieties available for grazing swards. The objective of this study was to compare the in vivo digestibility of perennial ryegrass in wether sheep and lactating dairy cows. The experimental design was selected to measure the effect of animal species (cows, sheep), sward HM measured cutting herbage at 4 cm above ground level (low: 1 700 kg DM/ha and high: 4 000 kg DM/ha) and season (Spring: Apr–May, Summer: Jul–Aug) on the digestibility of perennial ryegrass. Each HM treatment was offered to each animal within species and season for 12 d using a 2 HM × 2 period changeover Latin square design. There were eight cows and eight sheep, so there were four 2 × 2 Latin squares for each animal species (two) at each season (two), giving 64 observations. During each 12 d experimental period, the first 6 d were used for adaptation (adaptation phase) and the final 6 d were used for measurement (measurement phase). In vivo organic matter digestibility (OMD) in spring did not differ between animal species but in summer sheep had higher in vivo OMD than cows. The results described herein highlight the suitability of wether sheep as an alternative to dairy cows for determining the digestibility of perennial ryegrass in spring but not in summer. Stage of growth of the plant, which is intrinsically linked to season, should be considered as results show that digestibility in the ruminant was affected by season but not differentially affected by changing sward HM.

(2821) Proposal to conserve Ailanthus, nom. cons., (Simaroubaceae) as being of feminine gender

(2821) Proposal to conserve <i>Ailanthus</i>, nom. cons., (<i>Simaroubaceae</i>) as being of feminine gender

P326 An exploratory analysis of the impact of COVID-19 on colonoscopy procedures and new biologic treatment initiation among patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease in the United States

BackgroundPatients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) require frequent colonoscopies to optimize disease management and treatment strategies. At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, many routine procedures were postponed to reduce the overall burden on healthcare systems. We characterized the impact of COVID-19 on IBD care by conducting an exploratory analysis of real-world US healthcare claims data to identify changes in treatment patterns and the number of colonoscopy procedures performed in patients with IBD during the first wave of the pandemic.MethodsDe-identified, open-source health insurance claims data, from Jan 2019 to Oct 2020, were obtained from the Symphony Health Integrated Dataverse® for US adults aged 18–80 years with IBD. Four outcome measures were used: number of colonoscopies performed; number of new biologic treatment initiations or treatment switches; number of new biologic treatment initiations or treatment switches in patients who had a colonoscopy within the previous 60 days; and rate of telehealth consultations per 1000 patients per month. ResultsDuring Jan–Dec 2019 and Jan–Oct 2020, 1.54 million and 1.29 million patients with IBD, respectively, were included. The bimonthly number of colonoscopies remained stable throughout 2019, with a maximum change of +5.4% in Jul–Aug (N = 49947) vs Jan–Feb 2019 (N = 47399). Colonoscopy use decreased by 4.7% in Jan–Feb 2020 (N = 45167) vs the same period in 2019. In Mar–Apr 2020, colonoscopy numbers decreased by 55.3% (N = 20191) vs Jan–Feb 2020 (Figure 1a); a reduction of 59.4% vs Mar–Apr 2019 (N = 49780). In May–Jun 2020 (−23.8%) and Jul–Aug 2020 (+2.0%) the difference vs Jan–Feb 2020 gradually decreased (Figure 1a). Bimonthly numbers of new treatment initiations or treatment switches in 2019 varied by up to 6.9% vs Jan–Feb 2019. In May–Jun 2020, numbers of new treatment initiations or treatment switches decreased by 17.0% (N = 10072) vs Jan–Feb 2020 (N = 12133) (Figure 1b); a decrease of 19.3% vs May–Jun 2019 (N = 12488). The number of new treatment initiations or treatment switches in patients who had a colonoscopy within the previous 60 days decreased by 42.5% (N = 892) in Mar–Apr 2020 vs Jan–Feb 2020 (N = 1551) (Figure 1c); a decrease of 44.2% vs Mar–Apr 2019 (N = 1599). Telehealth utilization increased in March 2020 and remained higher than in 2019 up to October 2020 (Figure 2).ConclusionReduction in colonoscopies and subsequent initiation/switching of treatments during the COVID-19 pandemic first wave suggests lost opportunities for therapy optimization that may have an impact on longer-term patient outcomes. Increased utilization of telehealth services may have helped address gaps in routine clinical care.

Eritrean central‐highland precipitation and associations with sea‐surface temperature and atmospheric circulation

AbstractThis study explores the teleconnection between the boreal summer precipitation for the central highlands of Eritrea, with respect to global sea‐surface temperature (SST) and atmospheric parameters (winds, pressure, humidity, and vertical velocity) as indirect indicators of atmospheric circulation. The central‐highland summer (Jul–Aug) precipitation (1914–2015) is significantly negatively correlated with the Atlantic Niño (ATL3) index. Similarly, with a 2‐month (May) or 1‐month lead (Jun), SSTs over the equatorial Atlantic (Gulf of Guinea) are inversely correlated with the central‐highland summer precipitation. Moreover, the regional atmospheric circulation reveals that the boreal summer precipitation series has a significant positive correlation with the westerly wind over the Gulf of Guinea at 700 hPa and a negative correlation with the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) at 200 hPa. Overall, these findings depict the African Walker circulation cell, whereby a low‐level westerly wind flows from the Gulf of Guinea across central Africa, coupled with a rising branch over north‐eastern Africa, and reverses as an easterly wind at a higher level. These significant correlations between Atlantic Ocean SST as the precipitation‐driving factor enabled the development and validation of an area‐specific seasonal precipitation prediction model, as precipitation in this region is temporally and spatially highly variable.

Optimizing reproductive opportunity for Florida grasshopper sparrows: When to burn?

ABSTRACTThe critically endangered Florida grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum floridanus) is dependent on dry prairies managed with prescribed fires that are applied every 1–3 years. Timing of prescribed fires shifted from predominantly the dormant season (Jan–Mar) to the transition (Apr–Jun) and growing (Jul–Aug) seasons starting in the early 2000s to better mimic natural fire regimes. Populations have continued to decline, however, and the presumption that natural fire regimes are beneficial to the small extant Florida grasshopper sparrow populations needs to be evaluated. We monitored 167 Florida grasshopper sparrow nests across 6 fire treatments at Three Lakes Wildlife Management Area, Osceola County, Florida, USA, 2013–2016, and investigated the role of fire season and interval on clutch initiation date, nest site selection, nest survival, productivity, and nestling mass. Clutch initiation was delayed by ≥33 days in prairies burned during the current transition season and we found no nests in prairies burned during the current growing season. Transition season burns also overlapped with the early breeding season, which could result in the destruction of nests. Clutches were larger at the beginning of the breeding season and nestling mass was highest in the middle of the breeding season, indicating that early and mid‐season nests may be more valuable to annual fecundity than late‐season nests. Florida grasshopper sparrows nested in prairies burned in the current dormant season or previous growing season more than expected based on their availability and as expected or less than expected in prairies burned in the current transition season, previous transition season, previous dormant season, or &gt;2 years ago. However, we found no effect of fire treatment on daily nest survival, clutch size, number of fledglings per successful nest, or nestling mass. We recommend dormant season burning in prairies occupied by Florida grasshopper sparrows to increase reproductive potential given the subspecies’ small population and the importance of each nest attempt to population growth. We recommend transition or growing season burns in unoccupied adjacent prairies to maintain high‐quality dry prairie for nesting in future years. Prescribed fire management goals for Florida grasshopper sparrow populations should be guided by demographic responses rather than natural fire regimes. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

Atmospheric SO2 oxidation efficiency over a semi-arid region: Seasonal patterns from observations and GEOS-Chem model

The oxidation efficiency of atmospheric SO2, measured as a molar ratio of SO42− to total SOx (SOx = SO2 + SO42−), referred as S-ratio, have been studied from a high altitude site (Gurushikhar, Mt. Abu: 24.6° N, 72.7° E, 1680 m ASL) in a semi-arid region of western India. A global 3-dimensional Chemical Transport Model (CTM), GEOS-Chem (v8-03-01), is employed to interpret the observed patterns. The S-ratios derived from time series SO2 and SO42− measurements exhibited a pronounced seasonality, with relatively low ratios in Feb–Mar 2010, high ratios in Nov–Dec 2009 and intermediate values in Sep–Oct 2009. The lower S-ratios for Feb ‘10 and Mar ‘10 (median values 0.10 and 0.08 respectively) have been attributed to the relatively high planetary boundary layer (PBL) heights – to reduce the SO2 loss from the atmosphere via dry deposition – as well as the lower OH radical levels and low ‘aged air mass influx’ during these months. On the other hand, low PBL heights and significant long range transport contributions are projected to be the possible causes for the higher S-ratios during Nov ‘09 and Dec ‘09 (median values 0.30 and 0.28 respectively). The seasonal patterns for the S-ratios predicted by the CTM for the GEOS-Chem 4° × 5° grid cell containing the sampling site showed highest ratios in Jul–Aug, and the lowest in Apr. The model has been employed further to study the contributions from various parameters to the S-ratios such as PBL, OH, RH, dust load, transport pattern and dry deposition. Sensitivity simulations showed the S-ratios enhancing with dust load with the peak in May (∼4.7% (median)). Similarly, the ‘dry deposition’ is seen to boost the S-ratios with the peak in August (∼66.3% (median)). Also, model simulations to assess the ‘altitudinal dependence of S-ratios’ have revealed a pronounced seasonal behaviour.

Water quality implications from three decades of phosphorus loads and trophic dynamics in the Yahara chain of lakes

Trophic responses to phosphorus (P) loads spanning 29–33 years were assessed for the eutrophic Yahara chain of lakes: Mendota (area = 39.6 km2, mean depth = 12.7 m, flushing rate = 0.23 yr-1); Monona (13.7 km2, 8.3 m, 1.3 yr-1); Waubesa (8.5 km2, 4.7 m, 4.3 yr-1); and Kegonsa (13.0 km2, 5.1 m, 3.0 yr-1). During extended drought periods with low P loads, summer (Jul–Aug) total P (TP) concentrations declined substantially in all 4 lakes, with Mendota achieving mesotrophic conditions (<0.024 mg L-1). In years when P loads were high due to major runoff events, summer TP in the lakes was high (especially in shallower Waubesa and Kegonsa); in some summers dissolved inorganic P was elevated, indicating algae growth was not P limited. Summer TP returned to normal levels following both low and high load years, signifying the lakes were responsive to P load changes. The proportion of P input loads passed via a lake's outlet to the next lake downstream increased as flushing rates increased. Because Monona, Waubesa, and Kegonsa received 60, 83, and 76% of their surface water P load from the respective upstream lake’s outlet, reducing P loads in Mendota’s large watershed was predicted to produce significant water quality benefits downstream. Modeling indicated a significant grazing effect of Daphnia on summer TP and Secchi transparency readings for Mendota and Monona. Finally, using drought loads as targets, our study established P loading reductions needed to improve water quality in all 4 Yahara lakes.

Chemical discontinuity at the extratropical tropopause and isentropic stratosphere‐troposphere exchange pathways diagnosed using Aura MLS data

The chemical discontinuity at the extratropical tropopause (ExTP) and stratosphere‐troposphere exchange (STE) pathways are investigated using the long‐lived chemical species carbon monoxide (CO) and ozone (O3) measured by the Aura Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS). A relative coordinate, tropopause latitude (TpLat), is developed based on potential vorticity (PV) from the Goddard Earth Observing System version 5 (GEOS‐5) data assimilation system. TpLat is defined as the shortest geographic distance along an isentropic surface from the extratropical tropopause (ExTP) to an observation location. Our results show that this coordinate highlights the sharp chemical discontinuities at the ExTP more clearly than the widely‐used equivalent latitude coordinate. Geographical distributions of STE pathways and barriers are investigated based on meridional gradients in O3 abundances in the new TpLat coordinate in conjunction with analysis of Rossby wave breaking between 330 K and 360 K. In northern hemispheric (NH) winter (Dec–Jan–Feb), NH STE pathways are seen mainly above the northeast Pacific. In NH summer (Jun–Jul–Aug), the NH pathway covers all longitudes at 330 K. However, it is mainly located above Asia at 340 K and above the Atlantic and the North Pacific at 350 K and 360 K. In the southern hemisphere (SH), there is a weaker STE region above the Eastern Indian Ocean and the southwestern Pacific, at and above 350 K in SH winter, and a stronger STE region over the Southeastern Pacific at these levels during SH summer. In addition, this study shows NH PV gradients are slightly stronger near the ExTP in summer than in winter even though the subtropical jet is weaker and Rossby wave breaking is stronger in summer than in winter.

PL.49 Reducing the Caesarean Section (CS) Rate in a Rural Hospital in South-West Uganda

BackgroundThe fertility rate in Uganda is 6.1.1 The significance of repeated CS and the risks of labour after caesarean section are well-documented. Often CS is the most appropriate mode of...