Judean Foothills Research Articles

An Underground Rock-Cut Shrine near Amatsya, Judean Foothills, Israel

This article presents our documentation of a previously unidentified subterranean complex located near Amatsya, Israel. The study revolves primarily around an examination of the architecture, decorations, and letters carved on the walls of an underground rock-cut hall. The layout of the hall bears a striking resemblance to sacred architecture prevalent in the region since the Middle Bronze Age, while its decorative elements are linked to earlier artistic traditions dating back to the Iron Age, as well as the aniconic characteristics found in Idumean, Canaanite, Phoenician and Nabatean art of the Persian and Hellenistic periods. According to paleographic analysis, the Aramaic lapidary inscriptions, which possibly mention two deities, El and Adon, are tentatively dated to the 5th-4th centuries BCE. Our main thesis is that this hall functioned as a private shrine, possibly a funerary shrine adjacent to a rock-cut burial complex. We propose that both the shrine and the adjacent tomb were utilized by an Idumean landowner, showcasing influences from Phoenician / Canaanite iconographic traditions. Consequently, the site assumes significant importance, as it offers novel insights into the field of study by presenting, for the first time, a relatively well-preserved underground Idumean shrine from the Persian and Hellenistic periods. These finds contribute to a deeper understanding of the religious and cultural practices of the Idumeans during that specific era.

New evidence for long-distance trade in arsenical copper during the Early Bronze Age in the southern Levant: analysis of weapons from the Nesher-Ramla cemetery

The paper presents new data regarding trade in metals during Early Bronze IB. Using chemical and lead isotope analysis of weapons from Early Bronze Age IB burials from the Nesher Ramla Quarry, located in the Shephelah (piedmont) bordering the Judean foothills, it is shown that complex metals were likely procured from eastern Anatolia. These data join similar analytic results regarding several artefacts from the Kfar Monash hoard and evidence from Tell es-Shuna, and it is suggested that metal trade might be considered as a possible conduit for the transfer of cultural ideas and modes of social organization on the eve of southern Levantine urbanism.

“They Shall Come into the Hollows of the Earth” (Isa 2:19): Bar Kokhba-Period Hiding Complexes at Biblical Tels—Tel Lavnin as a Case Study

Hiding complexes in Judea have been objects of considerable scholarly interest since the 1970s. By now, we are well acquainted with their main features and spatial distribution. Most hiding complexes in the Judean foothills were cut beneath the houses in Jewish villages. They were entered via shafts carved out of the nari rock, leading to underground passages quarried in the soft chalk beneath. Following recent intensive looting at Tel Lavnin, a site located in ‘Adullam Park, south of the Ela Valley, inspectors of the Antiquities Theft Prevention Unit of the Israel Antiquities Authority documented three hiding complexes. In this paper, we present these hiding complexes and the objects discovered in them. We discuss these complexes’ special architectural features and ponder why particular architectural methods were chosen. We then compare the complexes of Tel Lavnin to complexes documented elsewhere in Judea. We propose that they constitute an architectural subtype of hiding complexes from the Bar Kokhba Revolt and predict that others like them will be discovered in the future.

THE USE OF OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE FOR MONITORING BEE DIVERSITY IN NATURAL SYSTEMS: THE BEEMS PROJECT

Abstract. This work wants to highlight the results obtained during the BEEMS (Monitoring Bee Diversity in Natural System) project, which the main goal was to answer the following question: Which biotic and abiotic indicators of floral and nesting resources best reflect the diversity of bee species and community composition in the Israeli natural environment? The research was oriented towards the cost-effectiveness analysis of new aerial geomatics techniques and classical ground-based methods for collecting the indicators described above, based only on open-source software for data analysis. Two complementary study systems in central Israel have been considered: the Alexander Stream National Park, an area undergoing an ecological restoration project in a sandy ecosystem, and the Judean foothills area, to the South of Tel Aviv. In each study system, different surveys of bees, flowers, nesting substrates and soil, using classical field measurement methods have been conducted. Simultaneously, an integrated aero photogrammetric survey, acquiring different spectral responses of the land surface by means of Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle (UAV) imaging systems have been performed. The multispectral sensors have provided surface spectral response out of the visible spectrum, while the photogrammetric reconstruction has provided three-dimensional information. Thanks to Artificial Intelligence algorithms and the richness of the data acquired, a methodology for Land Cover Classification has been developed. The results obtained by ground surveys and advanced geomatics tools have been compared and overlapped. The results are promising and show a good fit between the two approaches, and high performance of the geomatics tools in providing valuable ecological data.

Underground Cavities and a Christian Inscription and Dipinti at Horbat Basal (Khirbet Umm el-Basal), Judean Foothills

Underground Cavities and a Christian Inscription and Dipinti at Horbat Basal (Khirbet Umm el-Basal), Judean Foothills

A New Perspective on the Research of the Underground Complexes in Light of the Excavations at Nesher-Ramla Quarry

The Nesher-Ramla Quarry (el-Khirbe), located in the northwestern part of the Judean Foothills (Shefela), has been the site of one of the most extensive and long-lasting salvage excavations in Israel, conducted over almost two decades. During this time, dozens of hiding complexes were uncovered. The author has recently published a detailed review of these findings in a separate monograph. The present article summarizes the typology of the Nesher-Ramla hiding complexes and discusses their dating and function. Although similar to hundreds of other hiding complexes in Judea and the Galilee, the subterranean complexes at Nesher-Ramla Quarry and elsewhere clearly predate the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Nesher-Ramla Quarry’s outstanding contribution derives from the scale of its excavations and recovered finds, indicating that these underground complexes may have had a history and a function somewhat different than previously believed.

Animal husbandry from the Middle Bronze Age through the Iron Age in the Shephelah\u2014faunal remains from the new excavations at Lachish

Lachish (Tell ed-Duweir) is located in the southern part of the Judean foothills, known as the Shephelah, and is one of the larger and most extensively excavated multi-period sites in the southern Levant. We present the faunal results of the first three seasons of the most recent excavations, the Austrian-Israeli Expedition to Tel Lachish. The expedition focusses on two areas of the tell encompassing the Middle Bronze Age III through the Iron Age II, area S (deep section) and area P (palace area). The aims for the faunal analysis are threefold: comparing the results between the two areas, seeing how our results compare to previous analyses, and comparing Lachish to other synchronous sites in the Shephelah. We observe differences in subsistence strategies between the areas in addition to diachronic differences. Ovicaprids dominate all assemblages, but we see shifts in the sheep to goat ratio and mortality profiles through time indicating changes in subsistence strategies. Our new results largely agree with the results from previous analyses, showing the value of previous studies and their potential compatibility with newer research. A synchronic comparison of Lachish within the Shephelah shows the occupants of the site were largely self-sufficient but possibly engaged in an exchange of resources in the vicinity.

In search of the invisible hearth: An experimental perspective on early Levantine iron production

Conclusive evidence has surfaced for the production of iron objects in urban workshops in the Southern Levant during the early Iron Age. While nearly a dozen sites with metallurgical debris and technical ceramics dating to the 10th–8th c. BCE have contributed to the visibility of the craft, in situ high-temperature installations remain enigmatic in the archaeological record. Our ability to reconstruct the chaîne opératoire of iron production processes within each working context is restricted by the lack of this critical data. In this study we employ methods of experimental archaeology in order to investigate and interpret an assemblage of vitrified technical ceramics found in an early Iron Age metal workshop at the site of Tell es-Safi/Gath situated on the border between the southern coastal plain and the Judean foothills of Israel.As part of a broader research framework, iron smelting experiments were carried out in a simple, clay-built bowl furnace. Materials analogous to the archaeological ceramics were employed to address high temperature alterations occurring in a single installation. Using structural mineralogical and chemical analyses (FTIR, pXRF and SEM-EDS) we characterize the experimental and archaeological technical ceramics to identify the processes that affect and transform these materials during iron production activities. Results were then utilized to interpret production processes and the implementation of technical ceramics in ironworking at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Based on our observations, we address the specialized preparation of technical ceramics in early ironworking, possible reasons for the alteration and preservation of metallurgical installations following their abandonment and attempt to improve the interpretation and classification of vitrified ceramic waste from ancient metallurgical contexts.

Agricultural systems and terrace pattern distribution and preservation along climatic gradient: From sub-humid mediterranean to arid conditions

Agricultural terraces are a well-distributed agrotechnical method around the world. The current review aims to provide a holistic analysis of agricultural terrace spatial distribution along a climatic gradient of sub-humid Mediterranean, semi-arid and arid climate zones.It focuses on the relationship between geographic conditions and spatial distribution only, and does not examine chronological establishment or use. Three case studies that were carried out in the Land of Israel are presented and explored according to their geographic occurrence. In the Judean Mountains (central Israel), under sub-humid Mediterranean conditions, agricultural terraces are characterised by terrace coverage on slopes and in valleys. Annual rainfall average in this region is between 500 and 700 mm, allowing for vast rain-fed agriculture based on direct rain. In the Southern Shephelah (the Judean foothills, central Israel), a region under semi-arid conditions, agriculture terraces are located in small spots on the slopes, and in terrace fields in the valleys. Annual average rainfall in this region is between 300 and 400 mm. Rain-fed agriculture was sustained by direct rain and additional runoff generated on rock outcrops. In the Negev Highlands (southern Israel), a region under arid climate conditions with annual rainfall average of 100 mm, runoff farm terraces are located in valleys, and agriculture sustenance was based on water harvesting from the slopes. The terrace pattern distribution is similar to the natural vegetation pattern distribution of the three given areas.For the past several dozen years, changes in land use methods have resulted in the abandonment of many agricultural terraces in these areas. Terrace abandonment leads to the collapse of retaining walls and erosion of soil and sediments from the terrace body, with the latter occurring at a high rate in the arid Negev highlands. However, in the Judean Mountains and the Judean Shephelah, areas under sub-humid Mediterranean and semi-arid conditions, the intensity of erosion is lower since the terraces are covered by dense shrubs such as Sarcopoterium spinosum, which stabilizes and moderates soil and sediment erosion. This regional difference shows that the absence of maintenance is more significant in arid areas.To conclude, there are two primary insights 1: Climate has a dominant effect on agricultural terrace distribution, and ancient farmers knew how to adapt to different climate conditions. 2: Climate conditions have a major effect on terrace preservation and maintenance.

Pedology of archaeological soils in tells of the Judean foothills, Israel

Tells (archaeological mounds) predominantly consist of poorly consolidated to unconsolidated sediments, and soils that are highly anthropogenic. This study examines pedogenic processes related to carbonate mobilization in tells in comparison with their peripheral soils (reference soil profiles). The key objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that tell deposits evolve through concurrent processes of sedimentation and pedogenesis (synlithogenic pedogenesis), and further explain it. Case studies are presented from three tells in semi-arid and Mediterranean climatic zones of the Levant. The methods applied included field survey, analyses of particle size distribution, pH, %CaCO3 and organic carbon content, and soil micromorphology. Soils of the tells contain miscellaneous cultural materials that derive mainly from degraded mud bricks, pottery and burnt wood. Chemical data show basic pH values, high CaCO3 content, and minor amounts of organic carbon. Field observations and lab analyses both indicate high similarity amongst the tells and their reference soil profiles. Buried tell soils show same characteristics as near-surface soils. However, the reference soil profiles show incipient horizonation, slightly darker colours, and more developed structure. Micromorphology of both the tells and the reference profiles show cohesively welded peds in a vughy microstructure, groundmass with an open porphyric c/f-related distribution, and discontinuous carbonate recrystallization. Relative rates of soil formation in the tells can be estimated when archaeological records are established. Contrary to the tells, the reference soil profiles show lower porosity and only minor remnants related to earth construction materials. We classify the soils of the studied tells as archaeological Calcareous Anthraltic Xerorthents. The correlative WRB classification would be Calcic Urbic Technosols (Archaic). The anthropogenic materials are as calcareous as the natural soils, but due to human action, carbonates in the tells are distributed differently. Based on these observations, ancient human actions and the dry climate have led to very little mobilization and accumulation of carbonates. The information provided in this study adds to the pedological understanding of archaeological environments. Specifically, it can be useful for the study of site formation processes of tells.

First report onBursaphelenchus sexdentati(Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) in Israel

SummaryThis is the first report and characterization ofBursaphelenchus sexdentatiand the first official report of the presence of the genusBursaphelenchusin Israel. This species was isolated fromOrthotomicus erosus(Coleoptera: Scolytinae) found onPinus halepensisin the Judean foothills in Israel. Nematodes collected from insect galleries were reared on fungal cultures and identified based on morphological diagnostic characters for the genusBursaphelenchus. Sequencing analyses of the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region, small subunit (SSU) and large subunit (LSU) of ribosomalDNAconfirmed the identification of this nematode species collected from wood and directly from the insect body.

Nest‐site characteristics, breeding success and competitive interactions between two recently sympatric apex predators

An influential period in avian life‐cycles is the annual breeding season, when competition over suitable nesting sites and territories is a key factor that can determine fitness and distribution, especially for species that are highly selective in their nesting habitats. We analysed nest‐site characteristics, breeding success and competitive interactions between two apex predator populations. Whereas the Short‐toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus has nested in the Judean Foothills (Israel) for a long time, the Long‐legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus has only invaded the nesting habitat of the Short‐toed Eagle during their breeding season in the last two decades. These two recently sympatric species have similar nesting ecology and frequently use the same nests. They are therefore expected to compete over nesting sites and territories. We analysed interspecific interactions between these two species by combining information from comprehensive observational, experimental, GIS analysis and remote sensing data, deriving 65 variables to characterize the nest‐sites used and the breeding success in 381 breeding attempts over four consecutive breeding seasons. To assess interspecific and intraspecific territorial behaviour and aggressiveness, stuffed Long‐legged Buzzards and Short‐toed Eagles were presented close to nests. Nest‐site characteristics overlapped substantially between species, and Long‐legged Buzzards occupied 21% of all Short‐toed Eagle nests. Intraspecific aggression rates among Long‐legged Buzzards were higher than their interspecific aggression rates with Short‐toed Eagles and also higher than intraspecific aggression among Short‐toed Eagles. Long‐legged Buzzard and Short‐toed Eagle breeding densities (1.59 ± 0.11 and 2.96 ± 0.11 pairs per 10 km2, respectively) are likely to be the highest across their respective breeding distributions, with a maximum productivity of 0.96 ± 0.01 and 0.56 ± 0.05 (young fledged/breeding pair) for Long‐legged Buzzard and Short‐toed Eagle, respectively. Intraspecific interactions among both species play an important role in determining their breeding success and the spatial distribution of nesting sites. Our results suggest that interspecific competition over nesting sites and territories between both species, and the potential dominance of Long‐legged Buzzard, has both direct and indirect impacts on the spatial and demographic distribution of Short‐toed Eagles due to the recent establishment of Long‐legged Buzzard territories in the Judean breeding area.

The life-history of basalt ground stone tools from early urban domestic contexts: A chronicle from the EBA III of Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel

Recent archaeological excavations at the early urban settlement of Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel present the opportunity to reconstruct the life-history of basalt ground stone artefacts of an early urban domestic neighbourhood. Tell es-Safi/Gath is a multi-period site located on the border between the Judean foothills and the southern coastal plain of central Israel. Survey and excavations over the last two decades demonstrated that it was a major urban centre for the region during the Early Bronze Age (EBA) III. At the eastern end of the site, a neighbourhood of commoner residences (some perhaps associated with mercantile activities) have been exposed. This paper describes and analyses the basalt ground stone tools found in association with this domestic neighbourhood. It seeks to establish the nature of production, distribution, consumption, and discard associated with ground stone tools within a domestic context. The study involved several forms of analysis including typology, macroscopic observations, and excavation data. It is suggested that basalt sources from the northeastern regions of the southern Levant were exploited for the small-scale production of basalt artefacts by non-specialised craftsmen. These commodities were then transported in more or less finished form to Tell es-Safi/Gath where they were further redistributed or sold to the settlement residents. The residents of the Tell es-Safi/Gath neighbourhood utilised the basalt artefacts for traditionally domestic tasks, and ultimately intentionally discarded or recycled them in a few depositional contexts. In summary, this paper presents a unique investigation into the life-history of basalt ground stone artefacts discovered in the EB III occupation levels of Tell es-Safi/Gath. It further demonstrates the potential of ground stone tools for understanding the behaviour and daily life of non-elite people.

Multidimensional differentiation in foraging resource use during breeding of two sympatric top predators.

Ecologically-similar species were found to develop specific strategies to partition their resources, leading to niche differentiation and divergence, in order to avoid interspecific competition. Our study determines multi-dimensional differentiation of two sympatric top-predators, long-legged buzzards (LLB) and short-toed eagles (STE), which recently became sympatric during their breeding season in the Judean Foothills, Israel. By combining information from comprehensive diet and movement analyses we found four dimensions of differentiation: (1) Geographic foraging area: LLB tended to forage relatively close to their nests (2.35 ± 0.62 km), while STE forage far from their nest (13.03 ± 2.20 km); (2) Foraging-habitat type: LLBs forage at low natural vegetation, avoiding cultivated fields, whereas STEs forage in cultivated fields, avoiding low natural vegetation; (3) Diurnal dynamics of foraging: LLBs are uniformly active during daytime, whereas STEs activity peaks in the early afternoon; and (4) Food-niche: while both species largely rely on reptiles (47.8% and 76.3% for LLB and STE, respectively), LLB had a more diverse diet and consumed significantly higher percentages of lizards, while STE consumed significantly higher percentages of snakes. Our results suggest that this multidimensional differentiation allows the spatial coexistence of these two dense populations in the study area.

Provenance and exchange of basalt grinding stones of EB III Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel

On-going excavations at the Early Bronze Age III settlement of Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel have recovered a small assemblage of basalt ground stone objects in a residential neighbourhood. As high quality basalt is not found within the Shephelah (the Judean foothills), the occurrence of basalt artefacts at settlements in this region has frequently been cited as evidence of movement of raw material or the exchange of commodities within the southern Levant. However, only a limited number of studies have connected basalt artefacts with sources through geochemical provenance from this area of Israel. Using the geochemical fingerprints from previous studies and an XRF analysis, we attempt to identify the source of origin of nineteen basalt grinding stones using a meta-analysis of previously identified geological sources in the region and surrounding areas. The results demonstrate that the basalt artefacts originated from a wide variety of sources, including the eastern Dead Sea, Jezreel Valley, and Galilee-Golan regions, thereby supporting previously held hypotheses about the movement of basalt commodities from sources within the immediate region. No artefacts were linked to more distant sources (e.g. Egypt, Sinai). These data provide evidence that EB urban centres, such as Tell es-Safi/Gath, were socio-economically connected even for quotidian commodities to other regions of the southern Levant through some kind of system for the non-local exchange of traditionally domestic commodities.

The Early Bronze Age Fortifications At Tell Es-Safi/Gath, Israel

Tell es-Safi/Gath is a multi-period site located on the border between the Judean foothills (Shephelah) and the southern coastal plain in central Israel, which has been subject to survey and excavations over the last two decades. Excavations by Bliss and Macalister in 1899 exposed a fortification system which was dated to the “Jewish period”. In this paper, we present updated data on these fortifications which have led to fresh insights. In two separate excavation areas, we excavated portions of the fortification system that surrounded the site which can now be dated to the EB III of the southern Levant. The EB fortification system influenced the location of later fortifications at the site. The nature of the construction techniques of these fortifications and the character of the settlement which they surrounded suggest that Tell es-Safi/Gath was a major regional urban centre during the EB III and was governed by a centralised administrative hierarchy.

Pairwise measures of species co-occurrence for choosing indicator species and quantifying overlap

One of the most important ecological relationships between any two species is the degree of overlap in their distributions, i.e., their co-occurrence. Quantifying this relationship is a key step in the selection of indicator species and many other analyses in conservation biology and ecology. We derived a measure of the co-occurrence of two species based on the relative mutual information (RMI) of their distributions, and then compared its performance to three existing statistics: bivariate or binary covariance (BC), mean pairwise index (MPI), and proportional similarity (PS). To make this comparison, we measured co-occurrence values for all pairwise combinations of species collected from three communities (ground-dwelling beetles, moths, and vascular plants) in the Jerusalem Mountains and Judean Foothills, central Israel. We then used these co-occurrence values to address two different ecological problems: the challenge of identifying good indicator species, and the question of whether congeneric species co-occur more than species from different genera. We found that PS and RMI were the most reliable basis for choosing indicator species, but these two statistics differed in their error structures: PS had lower rates of type I errors (false positives), while RMI had lower rates of type II errors (false negatives). We also found that congeneric species co-occurred more often than species from different genera, but this pattern was statistically significant for only some of the measures of co-occurrence. In our analysis, then, the conclusion that we reached regarding the co-occurrence of congeneric species depended on which co-occurrence statistic was used. We therefore caution that available co-occurrence statistics should not be used interchangeably, because the ecological inferences drawn from a study may depend on the choice of co-occurrence statistic. In summary, we recommend PS and RMI as pairwise measures of species co-occurrence for investigating the reliability of biodiversity indicators and other applications in conservation biology and ecology.

Sarcopoterium spinosum from mosaic structure to matrix structure: Impact of calcrete (Nari) on vegetation in a Mediterranean semi-arid landscape

Sarcopoterium spinosum L. (S.p.) is a common type of dwarf shrub in the eastern Mediterranean area. This study focuses on the semi-arid south-western Judean foothills (Shephelah) in Israel, characterized by a hilly landscape with variable coverage of hard calcrete rock outcrops (Nari) on chalk. The following research questions were addressed: 1) What is the effect of calcrete rock outcrops on S.p. and the spatial composition of the vegetative landscape? 2) What are the landscape conditions in which S.p. dominates the vegetation? 3) What is the spatial structure and occupation strategy of S.p. in relation to rocky and non-rocky landscape surfaces? A field study was conducted to measure visual surface coverage of five components: S.p., shrub (excluding S.p. and including other dwarf shrubs and trees), annuals, rock, and bare soil. The results show that rock, an abiotic component, plays an important role in the semi-arid landscape of the research area. When rocky coverage is more than 14% of the surface, its presence contributes to high heterogeneity and advanced ecological niches, and governs the appearance and distribution of biotic components such as S.p. and others. Among the studied components, the relationship between rock and S.p. was found to be the strongest. Furthermore, rock and S.p. seem to fill interchangeable functions. As rock presence decreases, S.p. distribution increases. When rock coverage is less than 14%, S.p. becomes the dominant landscape component, covering 37%–77% of the surface, characterized by large patches with a high level of homogeneity along the entire slope. Our results show that the rock/S.p. ratio controls changes in the landscape structure varying from stable heterogenic mosaic to stable homogeneous S.p. matrix.

The relative performance of taxonomic vs. environmental indicators for local biodiversity assessment: A comparative study

Direct diversity measurements usually require more resources and knowledge than those available, so surrogates are needed. The two main types of surrogates are environmental indicators, physical characteristics of the environment, and taxonomic indicators, a taxon or subsets of taxa used to reflect other taxa in the ecosystem. The relative merit of these two surrogate types, though hotly debated, has rarely been investigated directly. Here we compared the relative efficacy of environmental vs. taxonomic indicators in representing local scale patterns of species richness, rarity, endemism, and composition. The study was conducted in the Mediterranean ecosystem of the Jerusalem Mountains and the Judean Foothills, Israel. A detailed study of eight taxa (vascular plants, ground dwelling beetles, moths, spiders, scorpions, diplopods, small mammals, and small reptiles) and of coarse-resolution habitat types and fine-resolution environmental indicators was conducted in 40, 1000 m 2 plots representing the different habitats in the region. Fine-resolution environmental indicators generally outperformed taxonomic indicators in reflecting diversity patterns, but their performance varied considerably between taxa and diversity measures, and on average they conveyed less than 55% of the variation in diversity patterns. Coarse-resolution habitat types failed to reflect diversity patterns. Plant species richness contributed to representation of diversity patterns of some taxa, but it needs to be combined with structural aspects of the vegetation in order to improve prediction power and expand the diversity aspects addressed. Composition patterns were poorly represented by either indicator used. We conclude that fine-resolution environmental indicators are suitable for general indication of local richness, rarity, and endemism patterns in Mediterranean ecosystems. Mapping these patterns at high resolution requires direct detailed surveys, or the application of other indicators.

Shift in nesting ground of the long-legged buzzard ( Buteo rufinus) in Judea, Israel – An effect of habitat change

Until the 1980s, at least 31 pairs of long-legged buzzards ( Buteo rufinus) nested along the streams of the Judean Mountains in Israel, mostly on rocky cliffs, which – according to existing literature – is the common nesting style of this bird. During the past 40 years, however, nesting in these areas has substantially decreased, with many pairs of buzzards now nesting on trees in the Judean Foothills. We suggest that the geographical shift in nesting area, and with it the dramatic change from nesting on cliffs to nesting on trees, is probably due to the increase in land cover (as a result of afforestation, expansion of human settlements and recovery of the Mediterranean chaparral) that has taken place in the Judean Mountains during the last four decades. Buzzards forage in open habitats and the change in land cover has hindered their ability to locate prey. Since there are no cliffs appropriate for nesting in the Judean Foothills, the buzzards were thus forced to adapt to a new style of nesting. This hypothesis is further supported by our observations that within their new nesting grounds in the Judean Foothills, breeding success was significantly related to the area of the open habitat within the territory. These findings have important scientific and ecological implications. We recommend that foresters should take into consideration the effect of afforestation on open-landscape raptors, and while planning new forests will consider also their needs, particularly leaving large open swaths of land as foraging grounds for such raptors.