Job Segregation Research Articles

Reassessing the Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis

Using Longitudinal Employer-Household Dynamics data, we demonstrate several facts that are not consistent with the “spatial mismatch” hypothesis that residential segregation and uneven distribution of jobs limit Black workers' opportunities. We show that (a) there is no Black-White gap in the firm premium component of wages in an Abowd-Kramarz-Margolis wage decomposition; (b) there are both more jobs and more good jobs within commuting distance of Black than White workers; and (c) Black workers' commutes are shorter. We conclude that geographic proximity to good jobs is not a major source of racial earnings gaps in major US cities today.

Racial Disparities in Occupational Distribution Among Black and White Adults with Similar Educational Levels: Analysis of Middle-Aged and Older Individuals in the Health and Retirement Study.

Occupational classes play a significant role in influencing both individual and population health, serving as a vital conduit through which higher education can lead to better health outcomes. However, the pathway from education to corresponding occupational classes does not apply uniformly across different racial and ethnic groups, hindered by factors such as social stratification, labor market discrimination, and job segregation. This study seeks to investigate the relationship between educational attainment and occupational classes among Black, Latino, and White middle-aged and older adults, with a focus on their transition into retirement. Using cross-sectional data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), this research examines the impact of race/ethnicity, educational attainment, occupational classes, and timing of retirement among middle-aged and older adults. The analysis includes a sample of 7,096 individuals identified as White, Black, or Latino. Through logistic regression, we assess the additive and multiplicative effects of race/ethnicity and education on six defined occupational classes: 1. Managerial and specialty operations, 2. Professional Specialty, 3. Sales, 4. Clerical/administrative support, 5. Services, and 6. Manual labor. Participants were Black (n = 1,143) or White (n =5,953). This included Latino (N =459) or non-Latino (n = 6,634). Our analysis reveals a skewed distribution of Black and Latino adults in manual and service occupations, in stark contrast to White adults who were more commonly found in clerical/administrative and managerial positions. Educational attainment did not equate to similar occupational outcomes across racial groups. Key findings include: Firstly, Black individuals with a college degree or higher were less likely to occupy clerical and administrative positions compared to their White counterparts. Secondly, holding a General Educational Development (GED) credential or some college education was generally linked to reduced likelihood of being in managerial roles; however, this inverse relationship was less evident among Black middle-aged and older adults than White ones. Thirdly, having a GED reduced the chances of working in sales roles, while having a college degree increased such chances. An interaction between race and some college education revealed that the impact of some college education on sales roles was more significant for Black adults than for White ones. We did not observe any interaction between ethnicity (Latino) and educational attainment on occupational classes. Given the stability of occupational classes, these findings could also apply to the last occupation held prior to retirement. This study highlights significant racial disparities in occupational classes among individuals with comparable levels of education, underscoring the profound implications for health and wellbeing disparities. Future research should explore strategies to alleviate labor market discrimination and job segregation as ways to close these occupational gaps. Additionally, the influence of social stratification, job segregation, and historical legacies, such as the repercussions of the Jim Crow era, on these disparities merits further investigation. Addressing these issues is crucial for enhancing the health and wellbeing of all populations.

경찰조직의 성별직무분리 영향요인 탐색

The sexual task segregation in the police organization is an undeniable fact. This is supported by objective statistics showing that female police officers tend to be concentrated in specific departments or roles. This is becoming more pronounced due to arguments suggesting that women have lower physical capabilities compared to men and that police work is better suited for men. In addition to this, doubts about the role and identity of female police officers and a lack of trust between male and female police officers have further contributed to this clear sexual task segregation structure.
 It has a solid and closed nature, leading to gender inequality within the organization. Therefore, it’s important to conduct research on the factors influencing sexual task segregation and their impact on the job attitudes of organizational members. In particular, research should go beyond simplistic explanations based on the nature of police work and the physical differences between men and women. This is because individual differences and factors in the workplace, such as the ease of balancing roles in both home and work environments, play a significant role in the choice of jobs that facilitate work-family balance, considering factors like marriage and childbirth, household chores, and childcare responsibilities.
 This research aims to dissect the factors influencing gender-based job segregation into individual and organizational dimensions to investigate whether gender-based job segregation within the police organization is a matter of personal choice or organizational compulsion.

Discrimination through Bargaining Structures: Gender Bias in the National Coal Board and British Coal

In its analysis of the pay determination of British Coal canteen workers, this article introduces that by Kathy O’Donnell, who argues that, in all but name, canteen workers were part of a single bargaining structure that included male surface mineworkers. It is drawn from the evidence prepared for the National Union of Mineworkers in late 1990 in support of an equal pay claim for female canteen workers and cleaners employed by British Coal. The claim was successful. Two points clearly emerge. First, job segregation allowed women workers to be placed in a separate grading structure from men, and even if there was some overlap between the two at the bottom of the one and at the top of the other, the situation was one in which there was no effective difference from the operation of a single grading structure. But for this institutional segregation, there would have been a much more transparent instance of pay discrimination.

Disparities in job characteristics by race and sex in a Southern aluminum smelting facility.

Former workers at a Southern aluminum smelting facility raised concerns that the most hazardous jobs were assigned to Black workers, but the role of workplace segregation had not been quantified or examined in the company town. Prior studies discuss race and gender disparities in working conditions, but few have documented them in the aluminum industry. We obtained workers' company records for 1985-2007 and characterized four job metrics: prestige (sociologic rankings), worker-defined danger (worker assessments), annual wage (1985 dollars), and estimated total particulate matter (TPM) exposure (job exposure matrix). Characteristics of job at hire and trajectories were compared by race and sex using linear binomial models. Non-White males had the highest percentage of workers in low prestige and high danger jobs at hire and up to 20 years after. After 20 years tenure, 100% of White workers were in higher prestige and lower danger jobs. Most female workers, regardless of race, entered and remained in low-wage jobs, while 50% of all male workers maintained their initial higher-wage jobs. Non-White females had the highest prevalence of workers in low-wage jobs at hire and after 20 years-increasing from 63% (95% CI: 59-67) to 100% (95% CI: 78-100). All female workers were less likely to be in high TPM exposure jobs. Non-White males were most likely to be hired into high TPM exposure jobs, and this exposure prevalence increased as time accrued, while staying constant for other race-sex groups. There is evidence of job segregation by race and sex in this cohort of aluminum smelting workers. Documentation of disparities in occupational hazards is important for informing health interventions and research.

Gender job segregation.

Gender job segregation.

“Motherwork” and communicative labor: A gendered analysis of hunger in marginalized US women

IntroductionThe feminization of hunger plays out in communities across the globe where poverty exists, including the United States, the world's wealthiest nation. The feminization of hunger and poverty can be traced to the “gender system”—deep seated gender inequities resulting in job segregation, discrimination in pay, unpaid caring work, and gender-based violence.MethodsExploratory qualitative research study with two focus groups comprising low-income women (n = 20).ResultsThe analysis identified three key themes: toxic stress related to food work, welfare stigma and racism, and the invisible loads of care work and communicative labor.DiscussionThe analysis shows how women's experience of hunger and food insecurity in the US is linked to forces of economic deprivation and symbolic violence. Consistent with Allen's (2007) theorization of “motherwork”, for women and mothers the experience of food insecurity is distinct because of its gendered link to the care work, food work, and communicative labor necessary for the survival and wellbeing of children.

Značaj principa jednakog tretmana muškaraca i žena u pravu Evropske unije

The issue of equal treatment of men and women represents an inexhaustible topic for research. Since the problem of gender-based discrimination is closely related to the establishment of equal treatment, the investigation of this topic should begin at the supranational level, as is the system of law in the European Union. The origin and development of the principle of equal treatment within the community of European states was gradual, leaving room for further refinements. However, the normative framework that was set was not accompanied by practical changes in providing equal opportunities for women in employment and at work, hence scholars continue to deal with the phenomenon of the gender pay gap, job segregation, the glass ceiling, and the problem of reconciling family and professional life, as a consequence of the unequal position of men and women in society. This paper examines the origin and development of the principle of equal treatment within the European Union, with the initial hypothesis that even the current normative framework is not capable of preventing the consequences of gender-based discrimination that exist in practice.

男女の職業分離を無くせるか？

男女の職業分離を無くせるか？

Estimating Firm-, Occupation-, and Job-Level Gender Pay Gaps with U.S. Linked Employer-Employee Population Data, 2005 to 2015

Merging 2005 to 2015 Internal Revenue Service, Social Security, and Census records, the authors calculate national average gender pay gaps for various population definitions and then decompose trends in the contribution of firm, occupation, and job segregation to these pay gaps, as well as the size of the average residual “within-job” pay gap. In general, observed segregation tends to explain about half of age, education, and hours of work adjusted gender pay gaps, but the other half remains within occupations in the same firm. Although between-firm pay gaps rose and within-job pay gaps declined through 2009, the authors find little decline in firm- or job-level gender pay gaps after 2009. The results indicate that to reduce gender pay gaps, public policy and employers should target gender disparities in hiring and job assignment as well as potential disparities in pay setting.

Merit Sticks to Men: Gender Pay Gaps and (In)equality at UK Russell Group Universities

Academic studies of gender pay gaps within higher education institutions have consistently found pay differences. However, theory on how organisation-level factors contribute to pay gaps is underdeveloped. Using a framework of relational inequalities and advanced quantitative analysis, this paper makes a case that gender pay gaps are based on organisation-level interpretations and associated management practices to reward ‘merit’ that perpetuate inequalities. Payroll data of academic staff within two UK Russell Group universities (N = 1,998 and 1,789) with seeming best-practice formal pay systems are analysed to determine causes of gender pay gaps. We find marked similarities between universities. Most of the variability is attributed to factors of job segregation and human capital, however we also delineate a set of demographic characteristics that, when combined, are highly rewarded without explanation. Based on our analysis of the recognition of ‘merit,’ we extend theoretical explanations of gender pay gap causes to incorporate organisation-level practices.

Racialized and Gendered Constructions of the “Ideal Server”: Contesting Historical Occupational Discourses of Restaurant Service

This essay takes a discourse-centered approach to understanding the historically contingent construction of restaurant service as a devalued occupational identity, showing how service is actively constructed as low wage and organized along hierarchies of gender, race, and class. These discursive constructions shape the relative visibility and legibility of workers as fully deserving of rights, compensation, and dignity. Building on prior research on the struggle over meanings of work, occupational identity, and gendered and racialized job segregation, the essay begins by tracing constructions of the “ideal server” predating the contemporary rise of restaurants from relations of servitude within and beyond the plantation economy, to the eventual entrenchment of tipping, and the gendered and feminized constructions of domestic service. It discusses racialized and gendered relations of servitude in the Pullman Company's dining cars and the eventual white feminization of waitressing. Adopting a historical narrative built on secondary literatures, it demonstrates the centrality of race, gender, and class to early occupational formations of service. It highlights how employers have cultivated occupational hierarchies and divisions as well as efforts by restaurant workers to transform how their labor is valued and compensated.

Gender-based segregation in education, jobs and earnings in South Africa

This paper investigates gender-based segregation in education, jobs and earnings among African women in South Africa. By investigating these linkages, we aim to identify potential policy interventions that could affect some degree of de-segregation in the labour market and thereby reduce the gender wage gap. Using large, nationally representative labour force data samples of African workers, our findings confirm the existence of an earnings hierarchy reflecting a male dominance premium. Specifically, our results show that women working in male dominated self-employment experience the highest returns, followed by women employed in male dominated wage employment while working in female dominated wage employment and self-employment is associated with a wage penalty. However, trying to address wage inequality in the labour market through labour legislation is not likely to be effective if the wage gap is mainly driven by horizontal segregation. Our findings show that gender-based horizontal segregation of jobs is strongly correlated with gender-based segregation in the choices of post-secondary education. Based on our findings, we conclude that targeted training interventions for vocational qualifications of women in male dominated fields of study is likely to be the most plausible policy response that could reduce some of the differences in the earnings between African men and women. The negative economic effects of COVID 19 pandemic, which in South Africa affected women more severely in terms of labour market outcomes (Casale & Posel, 2020), may provide policymakers with a catalyst to challenge the constraints women face crossing over into male dominated jobs.

Metaheuristics-based routing optimisation, balanced workload distribution and security strategy in IoT environment

The advancement of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) made the society ever so slightly gain new degrees of freedom, intrinsically with respect to connectivity. The emergence of internet of things (IoT) together with the onset and development of evolutionary computing, address the various needs of the growing urbanisation with a significant allusion altogether. Applications built on cloud infrastructure are deployed for job segregation, rapid processing and utilisation but with limitation of proper computation in high density IoT environment. This paper strives on resolving some of the issues so accosted by the IoT paradigm, with the help of a new metaheuristics-based data routing hybrid algorithm based on directed artificial bat algorithm (DABA) and particle swarm optimisation (PSO) to optimise connection issues such as real time delay and network congestion. This approach also introduces the clustering concept together with fog computing to distribute the network stress and to optimise the usage of bandwidth using the dynamic graph partitioning algorithm. The paper further proposes advance metaheuristics constricted PSO (C-PSO) in the hybrid algorithm and effective proposal for security strategy to enhance the efficiency of the IoT environment.

Metaheuristics-based routing optimisation, balanced workload distribution and security strategy in IoT environment

The advancement of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) made the society ever so slightly gain new degrees of freedom, intrinsically with respect to connectivity. The emergence of internet of things (IoT) together with the onset and development of evolutionary computing, address the various needs of the growing urbanisation with a significant allusion altogether. Applications built on cloud infrastructure are deployed for job segregation, rapid processing and utilisation but with limitation of proper computation in high density IoT environment. This paper strives on resolving some of the issues so accosted by the IoT paradigm, with the help of a new metaheuristics-based data routing hybrid algorithm based on directed artificial bat algorithm (DABA) and particle swarm optimisation (PSO) to optimise connection issues such as real time delay and network congestion. This approach also introduces the clustering concept together with fog computing to distribute the network stress and to optimise the usage of bandwidth using the dynamic graph partitioning algorithm. The paper further proposes advance metaheuristics constricted PSO (C-PSO) in the hybrid algorithm and effective proposal for security strategy to enhance the efficiency of the IoT environment.

Impact of gender on use of wasta among human resources management practitioners

AbstractThe practice of wasta dominates all aspects of Arabs' lives; it is a parallel inegalitarian system that categorizes people according to their connections. One of the epicenters of wasta is human resources management (HRM). This article studies the concept of wasta in the Arab world by examining its use in HRM according to gender, in the case of the Jordanian public sector. Results obtained from 27 semi‐structured interviews of HR managers indicate that though wasta is an important feature of HRM in general, there is a notable discrepancy between male and female employees, with the former displaying higher tendencies for using wasta than the latter. An explanation for this finding is the prevalent masculine nature of Jordanian society, which entails social caveats related to the traditional role of women. Professional determinants, such as gendered job segregation and variance in qualifications, also affect men's and women's access to wasta.

The Effect of Gender Inequality on Economic Growth in West Africa

Using panel data, this study examined how gender inequality affects economic growth in West Africa. The paper used data from 1997 to 2017 on GDP growth and three gender indicators. Nine countries in West Africa made up the study. The generalized method of moment (GMM) was the estimator used in estimating dependent variable and independent variables of the study. The dependent variable was GDP growth acting as a proxy for economic growth. The independent variables comprised of gender parity of primary school enrollment between female and male, labour participation ratio of female to male and gender inequality index (GII). The result of the study showed that at 1% level of significant, labour participation rate of female to male, gender parity in school enrollment and gender inequality statistically affect economic growth in West Africa. However, the outcome showed that whereas gender inequality adversely affects economic growth, increase in both participation rate of female and gender parity of school enrollment positively influence growth in West African economy. Population growth which was one of the controlled variables also showed a significant effect on economic growth. The study recommends that further studies should be conducted in area of job segregation and labour differences. Keywords : Gender Inequality Index (GII), Labour, femal, male, Economic DOI: 10.7176/JEP/11-24-08 Publication date: December 31 st 2020

WHO Knew. How the World Health Organization (WHO) Became a Dangerous Interloper on Workplace Health and Safety and COVID-19

The World Health Organization's (WHO) workplace health and safety guidelines on COVID-19 are unacceptably complacent in parts, patently dangerous in others, and contain serious gaps. Omissions include no mention of the essential role of labor inspection and enforcement, and a lack of recognition of potential interactions with other workplace hazards. WHO also omitted discussion of the necessity for wider employment protections to make safety and safe behavior a realistic prospect. Potential risks in outdoor work and the need to address the impact of job segregation related to inequalities in health outcomes are also absent. WHO's advice influences national practice, official guidance, and binding rules.The International Trade Union Confederation has assessed the flaws in WHO's arguments and has prepared a critique so they are understood and can be challenged.

Women’s Career Advancement Barriers in A Matrilineal Society: The Case of Minangkabau

This study seeks to examine and to compare the patterns of women’s and men’s career advancement in a municipal government located within traditional area of the biggest matrilineal society in the world, the Minangkabau. This research employed a qualitative approach through a case study and suggests that the higher the position, the less the number of women occupying it. Further, this study also aims to explore thebarriers that impede career advancement of the female employees. Women face barriers that become more significant as they climb the hierarchical structure, including lack of experience, job segregation, work-family conflicts, and stereotypes. Applying newpolicies such as a quota system and flexible work arrangements can be implemented to address these issues. This research only studied one municipal region within the Minangkabau. Future and more extensive research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the situation by observing more local governments

The labour digital divide: digital dimensions of labour market segmentation

This paper investigates digitalisation in labour activities within the Spanish population, with the aim of examining its extent and characteristics in relation to the digital divide at work, focusing particularly on access to and use of the internet. It thus aims to analyse the digital dimension of job segregation in the Spanish labour market. Internet use is explored both as an indicator of the type of work carried out and, in aggregate terms, of the broader characteristics of the labour market. The authors argue that a new segmentation of the labour market might be emerging, based on the technological requirements of jobs. The article draws on data from a representative Spanish population survey on how employees access and use the internet at work. Univariate, bivariate and multivariate statistical analyses were performed to describe the correlation between digitalised labour practices and individual sociodemographic conditions. The results show that around a third of Spanish workers are not required to use the internet at work. This population falls into two categories: the ‘analogical precariat’, in poor socio-economic conditions; and ‘traditional analogical labour’, in better quality traditional jobs. Digital workers can be classified into three groups: the ‘digital precariat’ (with a poor economic situation); ‘traditional digital labour’ (mainly involved in productive digital tasks); and the ‘innovative class’ (carrying out productive and communicative digital tasks). The level of education is by far the most important determining variable, in relation both to general and advanced uses. Young people and women are prominent in less complex uses of the internet (the digital precariat), which are usually related to less qualified jobs. The article argues that this represents a more subtle gender discrimination in the digital sphere than in the analogue one, with women being overrepresented in the digital precariat and underrepresented in the innovative class, while also being overrepresented in traditional analogical labour.