Japan's Victory Research Articles

1894년 이후 호남의 동학여당과 의병의 동향

『Hongjae Diary(1866-1911)』 is a diary written by Ki Haeng-hyeon(1843-?) who lived in Buan-gun, Jeolla-do. Ki haeng-hyeon recorded events, news, and rumors in Gobu, Taein, Namwon, and Jeonju, where the Donghak Peasant Revolution took place. He also recorded the trends of Yeonghakdang and Hwajeok, which were called the remaining forces of Donghak. The central government recognized it as a group like Donghak and the righteous army and suppressed the righteous army commander. In this way, Donghak-gun which was disbanded after the Donghak Peasant Revolution, continued its momentum as the remaining forces of Donghak, such as Yeonghakdang, Hwajeok, and Sujeok. Amid the continued suppression of the Donghak, the Iljinhoe was organized, and a person working as a Iljinhoe appeared in Buan. Iljinhoe intervened in local government authority and was also involved in the administration of village. This power of Iljinhoe was further strengthened when the Russo-Japanese War ended with Japan's victory and Japan-Korea Treaty of 1905 was signed. Since the signing of the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1905, righteous army has occurred in all parts of the country. The activities of the righteous army became stronger with the abdication of Gojong and the dissolution of the Korean army in 1907. Ki Haeng-hyeon recorded the size of the righteous army identified through newspapers, the murder or expulsion of local officials. After the Donghak Peasant Revolution, Donghak-gun in Honam returned to Yeonghakdang and continued its momentum as the remaining forces of Donghak including Hwajeok, and Sujeok. In an era when the sovereignty of the country was lost, Donghak's remaining forces were converted to righteous army by fighting against the Japanese army. Donghak-gun, suppressed by the Japanese military, rejoined the ranks of resistance against Japanese invasion as a righteous army.

개항기 서양인 기자의 시각에서 바라본 한국

In this article, I would like to look at Korea from the perspective of Western journalists during the opening of the port. The researcher focused on four interests that Western journalists are interested in due to paper relations: Seoul, Koreans, journalists, men and women. Chapter II briefly introduces the authors and books of German Genthe, American Jack London, Swedish Ason Grebst, and British Mackenzie by order of visit. Chapter III deals with the perception of the Russo-Japanese War, focusing on American Jack London, Swedish Ason Grebst, and British Mackenzie, except for Gente, who visited in 1901.Western journalists commonly pointed out that Japan attacked the Russo-Japanese War first. Western journalists viewed Japan more favorably than Russia. However, it has not deviated from Westerners' perception of orientalism. Chapter IV dealt with the interests of the four journalists, Genthe, Jack London, Ason Grebst, and Mackenzie. It was confirmed that Western reporters' perceptions and views of Seoul were based on orientalism. Reporters also recorded what they saw with their own eyes according to their duties, not as “difference,” but as “different.” Except for Jack London, Genthe, Ason Grebst, and Mackenzie did not have orientalist perceptions of Western journalists' perceptions of Koreans. Jack London reflected Orientalist thinking about Koreans in his writing. Other reporters, however, recorded their first-hand experiences with Koreans, characterizing them. This is also the Korean perspective on Westerners from a different perspective. Western journalists' perception of journalists predicted Japan's victory during the Russo-Japanese War. Journalists had to be censored for Japanese surveillance and articles in Korea. What is unusual is that it did not show an orientalist perception of the media. This is what reporters judged according to the situation at the time. Finally, in the case of Western journalists' views on Korean men and women, Genthe and Jack London expressed orientalist perceptions by mentioning that Korea is a male-centered society. On the other hand, Ason Grebst and Mackenzie described Korean women by status. As described above, the researcher looked at Korea from the perspective of Western journalists during the opening of the port. Although Westerners come to Korea with orientalist perception, it was confirmed by analyzing that orientalist perception changes through direct experience. In the future, this researcher thinks that reporters should study what they perceive about Korea more abundantly.

The significance of the Russo-Japanese War in the fate of Japan and Asia in the XX century

The article examines the fact of Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War as the starting point of Japan's historical development in the XX century, which determined the vector of further changes in Japanese foreign policy and played a significant role in the fate of Asian nations. In modern Russia, the 1904-1905 war is often perceived as a problem exclusively of Russo-Japanese relations and a factor clouding the prospects of good neighborliness. The author of the article aimed to determine the historical significance of Japan's victory in this conflict as an important moral factor for Japanese society, which had a strong international influence in the future. For this purpose author studied materials about the Russo-Japanese War, events preceding the Russo-Japanese war, its prerequisites, directly on the Russo-Japanese War and its results. Based on the data obtained, the author suggests that the results of the Russo-Japanese War had a decisive influence on Japan's transforming into an imperialist state in the first half of the XX century, in what the main role belongs to the acquired from the war victory conviction about the right and ability of Asian nations to resist European colonialism. It is the point from where the further Japanese militaristic policy of the 1930s and 1940s proceeds, which was of great importance in the history of Asian nations, as well as Russia. The article is intended for a wide range of readers interested in Russian and world history, especially for those who want to learn more about the Russo-Japanese war and the non-obvious consequences of Russia's failure in the conflict with Japan.

Belajar dari Kemenangan Jepang pada Perang Tsushima: Pembangunan Kekuatan Militer Melalui Industri Strategis

The various wars that have been passed have had implications for the development of Japanese combat conditions. One of the wars that sparked the rise of Japanese combat technology was the Tsushima War of 1905, marked by the use of new weaponry such as torpedoes and telegraphs. Japan's victory in the Tsushima War has proven that Japan has advanced weapons technology and has proven to be able to compete with Russia. This study provides a very important lesson and can be a reflection for Indonesia in the development of a naval military force. By using historical methods and defense economic theory approaches, this study discusses efforts to increase the strength of the main weapon system of the Japanese special navy. The results of the study show that the efforts made by Japan put a lot of emphasis on the strategy of developing the defense industry. The rise of the defense industry has become an integral part of military power building. In that context, Japan does not only involve the military, but also develops human resource capacity and increases research in the field of technology. The existence of good cooperation between the government, industry players, and academia is also the main pillar in the effort to build a naval military force.

Japan-Netherlands East Indies trade relationship in the late 19th Century to the 1930s

In 1868, after the Meiji goverment was established, the new goverment conducted a comprehensive restoration. Regarding trade, the Meiji government established free trade domestically, then it also pushed to secure cooperation with countries around the world. Southeast Asia where there were long-standing trade relationships was quickly approached to establish business premises by Japanese businesses and traders. Especially after Japan's victory in the Russo-Japan War (1904- 1905), Japan quickly boosted cooperation on trade and invested in Southeast Asia. Since the end of the 19th century, except for Thailand, most of the Southeast Asian countries were under the domination of Western countries. In particular, Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia) was under Netherlands' control. In the policy of promoting trade relations with Southeast Asian countries, Japan actively entered Maritime Southeast Asia, especially Netherlands East Indies because of favorable natural conditions, the diverse natural resources for industry and defense. In this paper we shall analyze Japan and Netherlands East Indies trade relationship in the late 19th Century to the 1930s, then elucidate the Netherlands East Indies position in the promoting of Japan's trade during this period.

Histori Piagam Jakarta: Spirit Perjuangan Penerapan Nilai Islam Secara Yuridis Konstitusional

The historical journey of Indonesian independence which has long been aspired by the nation's generation continues to be fought for, the role of Islamic figures and Islamic values ​​in coloring all aspects of community life in the archipelago between a strong foundation to be free from colonialism, because basically Islam is freedom from colonialism to beings to worship to the Creator. The process of Indonesian independence took place in several phases including Japan's victory over the Netherlands, the phase of the formation of the BPUPKI team, PPKI, to the process of proclamation of independence which resulted in the basis of the Indonesian State known as the "Jakarta Charter"

Chinese Asianism, 1894-1945 by Craig A. Smith

Reviewed by: Chinese Asianism, 1894-1945 by Craig A. Smith Yue Du (bio) Craig A. Smith. Chinese Asianism, 1894-1945. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Asia Center, 2021. xiv, 320 pp. Hardcover $55.00, isbn 9780674260245. For understandable reasons, existing scholarship on Asianism heavily focuses on Japanese (pan-)Asianism in the context of Japanese imperialism, even though recent studies have proposed complicated frameworks that highlight various forms of Japanese Asianism in different historical periods that could serve as either an anti-hegemonic discourse or an instrument of Japanese imperialism. The biggest contribution of Dr. Smith's new book, Chinese Asianism, 1894-1945, is treating Asianism as a product of the dialogue between Chinese and Japanese intellectuals against the backdrop of the global trend of internationalism and pan movements. The book is organized both chronologically and thematically. It traces how Asianism was developed and perceived by Chinese intellectuals in China and Japan in the last decade of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century. The journey of Chinese Asianism is presented as moving from Confucian Asianism, to racial Asianism, to civilizational Asianism, to socialist utopian Asianism, to Asianism as a means to save weak and small nations, to political Asianism led by China, and eventually to political Asianism led by Japan. For Smith, these categories of Asianism are neither strictly temporally defined nor mutually exclusive. But such categorization does enable the author to clearly display how Asianism intersected with dominant paradigms and concepts in turbulent times. Chapter 1, "Lips and Teeth," studies the real interest among Chinese and Japanese intellectuals in Sino-Japanese alliance, or even unity, around the time of the 1898 Hundred Day Reform. Through detailed analysis of various leading voices and influential translations, Smith shows how some of the key concepts of Asianism were established during this period—shared script and cultural history by China and Japan, the same "yellow" race of the Chinese and the Japanese, their common fear of Western aggressiveness, and the use of Western frameworks of political thought to imagine a truly Eastern society. Smith also refutes the "Golden Decade" paradigm prominent in current research of Sino-Japanese intellectual exchange between 1898 and 1907, disclosing the distain of Chinese intellectuals that existed beneath the surface of enthusiasm. Chapter 2, "Jaws and Jowls," focuses on the Datong school in Japan, which was a network of educational institutions operating in Japan's China towns. The Datong school was associated with some prominent Chinese public figures of the time, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, and Sun Yat-sen. Discarding the intellectual discourse proposing that Japan leave Asia, Chinese intellectuals in Japan imagined a future that was both Asian and modern. And they espoused a [End Page 144] version of Confucian Asianism that accepted the central claim of social Darwinism and the belief that a muscular progressive Confucianism could meet the challenge posted by white imperialism to both China and Japan. Chapter 3, "Same Script, Same Race," examines the discourse of racial solidarity in Chinese writings in the first decade of the twentieth century. The author shows that race was a fluid concept, which was easily and purposefully molded to meet the political need of the speaker. On the one hand, the idea of a race war—an ultimate war between the while and yellow races—was widely accepted by Chinese intellectuals, which was used to call for Asian unity in face of Western oppression. On the other hand, anti-Manchu revolutionaries, such as Zou Rong, Liu Shipei, and Chen Tianhua, adopted a pseudoscientific explanation of race to distinguish the Han, who were believed to belong to the same subracial group as the Japanese and Koreans, from the Manchus, who were assigned to the "Siberian" subracial group like the Turks and Mongols. This complex application of the concept of race exemplifies the imbrication of nationalism and Asianism in the context of racialization of both. Chapter 4, "Asia for the Asians," looks at how the catastrophes of World War I prompted the development of a new paradigm in multiple civilizations to categorize East and West. After Japan's victory over Russia in 1905 and its annexation of Korea in 1910, Chinese intellectuals were...

Central Banks and Gold: How Tokyo, London, and New York Shaped the Modern World

Japan's victory over China in the 1895 Sino-Japanese War paved the way for Japan to play a major role in international finance. Japan made China pay an indemnity (7.5 million kilograms of silver) in London in pounds sterling, directly convertible to gold. The Chinese deposits in the Bank of England allowed Japan to adopt a gold standard and gain access to international capital markets. After the establishment of the Federal Reserve System in 1914, central bankers in London and New York City cooperated with their Japanese counterparts to maintain Japan's role in the international economy. Moreover, the authors argue, the cooperation of the central banks of Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom continues to this day to manage the distribution of the world's monetary gold reserves; they overlook the International Monetary Fund and China. They base their argument on Bank of England accounts of Japanese deposits, the largest of any country until 1914. During World War I, the importance of Japan's accounts led the bank's officials to pay close personal attention to Japanese officials, creating collaborations that continued. The correspondence of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York governor Benjamin Strong Jr. and his close friend, the Bank of England governor Montagu Norman, throughout the interwar period shows that Japan's finance ministers were also key figures in the central bank cooperation nurtured by Norman until World War II. As evidence that Japan's gold reserves played a central role in the global finance of this period, the author's show that each of the major international crises—in 1907, 1920, and 1929—appeared in Tokyo three to six months before appearing in New York City and London.

The impact of the first Sino-Japanese war indemnity: Transfer problem reexamined

The first Sino-Japanese war that took place in 1894–1895 was concluded with Japan's victory and the Treaty of Shimonoseki which in effect requires China to pay a war indemnity of 230 million taels of K.P. silver; cede Taiwan to Japan in perpetuity and full sovereignty; open treaty ports for Japanese export and investment, etc. The amount of indemnity was about a quarter of Japan's GDP at the time. In contrary to the effect of Franco-Prussia war indemnity payment on France studied in Devereux and Smith (2007), China's post war terms-of-trade was improved. Using a small open economy (SOE) full DGE model, this paper investigates the impacts of the war indemnity on China's economy for 1895–1900, particularly issues related to the “transfer problem”. Our simulation results predict an improvement of the terms of trade which fits the Chinese history. The assumptions of two-goods setting, import markup, and SOE explain the difference in results between the current paper and Devereux and Smith (2007).

Eastern learning and the heavenly way: the Tonghak and Ch'ondogyo movements and the twilight of Korean independence

Tonghak, or Eastern Learning, was the first major new religion in modern Korean history. Founded in 1860, it combined aspects of a variety of Korean religious traditions. Because of its appeal to the poor and marginalized, it became best known for its prominent role in the largest peasant rebellion in Korean history in 1894, which set the stage for a wider regional conflict, the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. Although the rebellion failed, it caused immense changes in Korean society and played a part in the war that ended in Japan's victory and its eventual rise as an imperial power. It was in this context of social change and an increasingly perilous international situation that Tonghak rebuilt itself, emerging as Ch'?ndogyo (Teaching of the Heavenly Way) in 1906. During the years before Japan's annexation of Korea in 1910, Ch'?ndogyo continued to evolve by engaging with new currents in social and political thought, strengthening its institutions, and using new communication technologies to spread its religious and political message. In spite of Korea's loss of independence, Ch'?ndogyo would endure and play a major role in Korean nationalist movements in the Japanese colonial period, most notably the March First independence demonstrations in 1919. It was only able to thrive thanks to the processes that had taken place in the twilight years of Korean independence. This book focuses on the internal developments in the Tonghak and Ch'?ndogyo movements between 1895 and 1910. Drawing on a variety of sources in several languages such as religious histories, doctrinal works, newspapers, government reports, and foreign diplomatic reports, it explains how Tonghak survived the turmoil following the failed 1894 rebellion to set the foundations for Ch'?ndogyo's important role in the Japanese colonial period. The story of Tonghak and Ch'?ndogyo not only is an example of how new religions interact with their surrounding societies and how they consolidate and institutionalize themselves as they become more established; it also reveals the processes by which Koreans coped and engaged with the challenges of social, political, and economic change and the looming darkness that would result in the extinguishing of national independence at the hands of Japan's expanding empire.

J. CALVITT CLARKE III. Alliance of the Colored Peoples: Ethiopia and Japan before World War II.

In this detailed and well-researched study, J. Calvitt Clarke III provides a new perspective on the volatile world politics of the 1930s by investigating the controversial relationship between Japan and Ethiopia. Using Japanese, Russian, Italian, and English-language sources, Clarke shows how the participants in the multisided Ethiopian crisis employed ideas about race to enlist support for their cause. He is especially good at unraveling the complex diplomatic situation preceding Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 and explaining how individuals and non-governmental groups in Japan and Ethiopia sought to forge cultural connections to promote closer relations. As Clarke explains, the roots of the later international controversy surrounding Japan's involvement in Ethiopia can be traced to the Russian-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Japan's victory over Russia shocked European and American observers and thrilled revolutionaries throughout much of the colonized world. In less than four decades, Japan had transformed itself from a seemingly isolated and backward society to a powerful industrialized nation that had to be counted as among the world's great powers. Japan's rapid rise to power offered nationalists in Africa and Asia a model to emulate, especially after the Great War shook the foundations of European society.

Reinterpreting Revolutionary Russia: Essays in Honour of James D. White by Ian D. Thatcher (review)

reviews 561 incisive essay on the effect of defeat on tsarist foreign policy underlines the perceived imperative for a recueillement inRussia's external relations, but also shows how Russia's bureaucratic elite established a greater role for itself in the foreign policy-making process. Norman Saul's contribution on the peace talks inNew Hampshire charts their course, and isvery attuned to diplomatic nuances in examining the subtle changes that occurred in Russo-American relations startingwith the Portsmouth-Kittery talks. The translated chapters, in particular, would have benefited frommore careful copy-editing, which might easily have filtered out stylistic infelicities and grammatical and typographical errors. Although very nicely produced, and adorned with wonderful illustrations, at around ?130 each, the price for the two volumes isprohibitive. Overall, there can be no doubt as to the scholarly thoroughness and importance of the essays brought together in these two volumes. Scholars of the period will want to take note of them. Even so, a grain of doubt remains. Following Japan's victory in the war, a senior British diplomat comment ed that the rise of Japan had so upset the existing international order 'as a planet the size of Mars would derange the solar system'. The Russo-Japa neseWar was a regional conflictwith global ramifications, and itneeds to be seen in a global context. The essays reviewed here, excellent though they are, remain focused on the two antagonists on Mars, but pay little attention to the solar system. School of History T. G. Otte Universityof East Anglia Thatcher, Ian D. (ed.).Reinterpreting Revolutionary Russia: Essays in Honour of James D. White. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke and New York, 2006. vii + 219 pp. Notes. Index. ?45.00. Ian Thatcher has assembled an impressive collection of highly readable essays inhonour ofJames White. In his own Introduction, Thatcher highlights White's research on the Bolshevik seizure of power, which stressed that it was Trotskii's tactic of transferring power bloodlessly to the Soviets that triumphed, though Lenin's idea of an offensive on Petrograd dominated the historiography in order to preserve Lenin's primacy in the legend. On theTerror in 1905John Keep shows that itsobject of achieving po litical change succeeded only when strikes, riots and demonstrations forced the Tsar to concede reforms. Keep cites the revisionist view of terrorists as dangerous Utopians, often criminals in disguise, while he limits terrorism to 'violent individual or group action [. . .] designed to kill or harm per sons, rightly or wrongly, as members or supporters of an oppressive ruling establishment' (p. 22). The theme of Russian terrorism is continued in Jane McDermid's article on Mariya Spiridonova. Arrested for the assassination of a provincial governor, Spiridonova soon became a cause celebre when itwas reported that 562 SEER, 86, 3, JULY 2008 she had been beaten, tortured and sexually assaulted under interrogation. The idea of 'a beautiful young woman, determined to "sacrifice" her lifeon the altar of the revolutionary cause' (p. 37), and suffering torture as a result, was taken up as a sensation in the Western press, which was more indignant at her mistreatment than either her killing of the governor or the sentence of death, which was commuted to twentyyears in exile. Revisiting the work of Leopold Haimson and the question of whether World War One was fundamentally responsible for the demise of tsarism, David Saunders broadens his focus beyond the immediate pre-war years and intoprovincial industrial centres.His research on the impactmade byRussia's nineteenth-century wars on industrial labour leads him to conclude that it was not the intensification of pre-existing trends that ended tsarism,but rather the 'equilibrium-punctuating catastrophe' (p. 57) that was the war. Rex Wade questions the terminal date of the Russian revolution. After surveying the wide range that generations of historians have applied ? October itself,theCivil War, NEP, Lenin's death, and even 1937-38 and the Great Terror, Wade settles for the dispersal of the Constitutional Assembly inJanuary 1918, arguing persuasively that that event 'transformed a political struggle into a military struggle, revolution into civilwar' (p. 85). Analysing Trotskii's role in the civilwar, Geoffrey Swain argues that it was his application of 'thoroughly un-Bolshevik' (p. 86) principles of organiza...

Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, and the Emergence of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868-1922 (review)

Reviewed by: Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, and the Emergence of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868-1922 Michael A. Barnhart (bio) Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, and the Emergence of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868-1922. By J. Charles Schencking. Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2005. xii, 283 pages. $55.00. This is a compact yet comprehensive study of the creation and spectacular expansion of the Imperial Japanese Navy from the Meiji Restoration until the Washington Naval Conference treaties. As the author states at the outset, his focus is not on the navy's hardware but rather the politics, particularly the budgetary politics, of these years. To a remarkable degree, the navy built those politics. In doing so, it not only "made waves." In a real sense, it was a vital architect of the entire Meiji polity. Consequently, this study will be of interest to any scholar who understands that the construction of the Meiji state was hardly preordained and that its success, against domestic or foreign obstacles, was not automatic. In many respects, the literal and figurative construction of the Imperial Navy mirrored the construction of that Meiji state. As Schencking observes, Japan in 1868 was economically poor, politically unsettled, and had a people with little sense of nation. These were poor prospects for the creation of a successful state, but they posed even more daunting difficulties for the construction of a national navy. Unhappily for Japan, navies were expensive, demanded long political commitments, and were the embodiment (and usually consequence) of strong national feelings. In Japan's case, there was the further problem of a virtual absence of any naval tradition and, therefore, naval-minded elites to provide the core of the Imperial Navy in its infancy. Even worse, unlike the navies of every single great power of the nineteenth century, the Japanese navy did not even enjoy service autonomy. Autonomy was acquired easily, thanks in no small part to the maritime threat offered by those great powers. Funding, ironically, required a domestic threat. As has been long known, Chōshū's dominance within the Meiji [End Page 199] oligarchy sparked opposition from several sources. One was the well-known popular rights (minken) movement. Another came from the rival domain of Satsuma. As Schencking makes clear, Satsuma elites saw naval autonomy as the perfect way to counter Chōshū within the new regime. Likewise, the new autonomous navy saw alliance with those in the Diet who advocated popular rights as a useful way to find funding. The rise of a strong Chinese navy, and Sino-Japanese rivalry over Korea, ensured the creation of a small but modern fleet for its first trial in the war of 1894–95 with China. By the time victory was assured in that war, the Imperial Navy was no longer Satsuma's. In part, the nationalization of the navy occurred simply by moving the naval academy entrance examinations to Tokyo. But it was also due to an influx of young officers who joined literally to see the world. The creation of the first professional officer corps is a vital story, one that this study could not devote sufficient attention toward, but Schencking deserves credit for highlighting its importance. As he points out, surely the most important of those young officers was Yamamoto Gonnohyōe, who swept out Satsuma admirals with astonishing boldness and forged an alliance with Diet party men that lasted far beyond the 1890s. Yamamoto was not just politically shrewd. He understood the importance of mass opinion and the role of the press in shaping it. Schencking's description of naval propaganda is worth the book's price alone: elaborately arranged maneuvers, carefully orchestrated public exhibitions of warships, cultivation of journalists—nothing escaped Yamamoto's attention. Japan's victory over China was itself a tremendous public relations boost for the Imperial Navy, but even its effect paled in comparison to the navy's crushing triumph at Tsushima to effectively close the Russo-Japanese War a decade later. The navy's alliance with the swiftly rising Seiyūkai party marked the high tide of the navy's fortunes—and budgets—in this period. Success had its price. Just as...

The Flight of the Japanese Butterfly: Orientalism, Nationalism, and Performances of Japanese Womanhood

written by American author John Luther Long in the year of the Spanish-American War, Madame Butterfly is one of the quintessential Orientalist narratives. Through the tragic relationship between Lieutenant Benjamin Franklin Pinkerton, an American naval officer stationed in Nagasaki, and Cio-Cio-San (Madame Butterfly), a self-sacrificing Japanese heroine who kills herself at the end, the narrative exemplified the gendered dynamics of EastWest relations founded upon unequal power relations. Following David Belasco's stage adaptation of the story, Italian composer Giacomo Puccini produced the now-famous opera Madama Butterfly in 1904, the year of the Russo-Japanese War. While Butterfly certainly echoed the numerous existing texts of European Orientalism, the specific narrative of Butterfly and the timing of its productions were also symbolic of Americas power in creating its own Orientalism at a time when the geopolitics of EastWest relations underwent a rapid change. On the one hand, the Spanish-American and Filipino-American wars followed by the U.S. conquest of the Philippines, along with the Open Door Policy vis-a-vis China, epitomized the United States' full-fledged entry into AsiaPacific as an imperial power and the coming of the "American century." On the other hand, Japan's victory in the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars and its growing military and economic expansion in Asia demonstrated the nation's entry among the Western powers as a modern imperial power. The cross-Pacific dynamics of nation and empire building manifested in these events were embodied in Butterfly 's narrative construction as well as its performances on stage. The multilayered nature of the operatic text expressed through its narrative, theatrical, and musical constructions further enhanced the dramatization of the highly racialized and gendered original story, inscribing onto popular memory not only the tragic narrative but also the visual and sonic images of Cio-Cio-San.1 Ironically, in most productions of Puccini's Butterfly 'in the United States in the early twentieth century, Cio-Cio-San's tragic Japanese womanhood was

Front and Back Covers. Volume 20, Number 2. April 2004

Front and Back Covers. Volume 20, Number 2. April 2004Front coverThe front cover illustrates Emiko Ohnuki‐Tierney's article on Special Attack Force (kamikaze) pilots (see pp. 15‐21). Kazuyo Umezawa, a Navy ensign, is shown on 28 April 1945, at the age of 18, about to embark on his 'no‐return' mission from Kokubun Base, southern Kyushu, to meet his death as a tokkotai pilot. He was one of 3000 so‐called 'boy pilots' (shonen hikohei) who, without finishing their higher education, were drafted towards the end of the war. State propaganda aestheticized their fatal missions, using the symbol of the cherry blossom to the extent that some pilots themselves fastened branches of cherry blossoms on their uniforms and headgear before taking off. When he was drafted, Kazuyo's mother pleaded with the Office of the Draft that her three other sons had already been drafted, that she had been raising her children single‐handedly since her husband's death from cancer at 42, and that her life would become even more difficult without Kazuyo. They replied that she was not the only one who suffered and that she should endure until Japan's victory. She persisted until an officer from the Draft Office threatened that she would be labelled a 'non‐national subject' (hikokumin), at which point she gave up (Umezawa Shozo, 1996, personal communication). Despite his mother's strenuous opposition, Kazuyo wanted to help her financially as well as fulfilling his obligation of loyalty to her (ko), and he therefore volunteered as a Navy practice pilot. Financial incentives for recruits included the offer of higher payments for more dangerous positions and promotion of tokkotai pilots by two ranks upon death, which sharply increased the payment (onkyu) to survivors.Shozo Umezawa explained how a few days before his brother's final flight Kazuyo had returned home cursing the Navy for killing young men. His facial expression reveals unspeakable sadness ‐ a far cry from the radiant smile often portrayed in the propaganda photos of the tokkotai pilots.Back coverSupranationalism, nationalism and 'indigeneity'The back cover shows souvenirs displayed in a typical Brussels Euro‐tourist shop. It illustrates the interview in this issue with Cris Shore and Marc Abélès on the European Union and its imminent enlargement (pp 10‐14). The EU is a putative supranational project aimed at an indeterminate future, but lacking the ritual or cultural legitimacy that the European nation‐states enjoy through their individual histories. Enlargement means that the EU will have to transcend its founding narrative, centred on avoiding war through a tight Franco‐German embrace, to find a new grand narrative. Since the EU project is very much about engineering a future, its study poses a particular challenge to anthropologists.If 'supranationalism' epitomizes an ideology of integration under assumptions of ethical and evolutionary superiority over parochial national bodies, in another take, Nancy Lindisfarne forefronts processes of globalization that are forming new transnational alliances, when she reviews the World Social Forum since 2000.Justin Kenrick and Jerome Lewis argue against equating extreme nationalism with 'indigeneity' or 'indigenous' ‐ but still envision these terms as no less culturally constructed than ideas such as 'the state' (or 'the EU'). 'Indigenous' points to lived realities best understood as including us all, not least the way transnational corporations make use of modern state power, or even academic arguments about who is 'indigenous' or not.No more powerful symbol of an integrated world exists than the attack on the World Trade Center. Emiko Ohnuki‐Tierney prepares the ground for a bold analysis of the mythical narrative in the US media that too easily conflates Al‐Qaeda civilian airline hijackers attacking Western urban targets with 'kamikaze' pilots attacking Pearl Harbor. In this issue, she examines the diaries of a number of young pilots at the end of World War II, and their thoughts, which reveal that they were cosmopolitan in their thinking, but forced to replicate in action the nationalist and militarist ideology that state propaganda aestheticized through the symbolism of the cherry blossom.

The Japanese War Memorials of Singapore

Monuments of commemoration, such as war memorials, convey strong ideological meaning and symbolism, to the extent that they are often used by political regimes as tools of propaganda. This paper looks at the case of the Japanese war memorials in Singapore that marked Japan's victory over Britain in the fall of Singapore. During the Japanese occupation of Singapore, they were used by the Japanese military authorities as public places where the population of Singapore showed its submission to Japan and its imperial ideology. After the Second World War, they were destroyed and neglected, but their ruined sites, even fifty years later, still symbolized Japanese domination in popular memory.

Japan through Vietnamese Eyes (1905–1945)

Vietnamese resistance to French rule dates back to the mid-nineteenth century, but the first decade of the twentieth century heralded a new chapter in the long history of anti-colonialism in Vietnam. It began with the fervent reformist efforts of a group of nationalist scholars trained and brought up in traditional ways, whose Movement for Modernisation (Phong Trao Duy Tan) was greatly influenced by the rise of Japan in the eastern hemisphere, especially following Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese war (1904–1905). Japan became a source of inspiration and began to be perceived as a model, a stimulant and even as a possible saviour of Vietnam.

The Russo-Japanese Agreement of 1907: Its Causes and the Progress of Negotiations

Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 changed the balance of power in the Far East, and there was a shift from opposition between Japan and Russia to one between Japan and the United States. One result of the new tension between the United States and Japan was the conclusion of a Russo-Japanese Agreement on 30 July 1907. Financial and political difficulties within Russia and Japan also helped to bring about this Agreement.

Japan, Philosophy and Thomism

JAPAN, PHILOSOPHY AND THOMISM T HE history of mediaeval philosophy, largely in the sense of Thomism, did not begin in Japan with the introductoin of Christianty in the sixteenth century. At that time several seminaries were established by Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries, but no active philosophical movements seem to have followed. A Japanese translation of the De lmitatione Christi appeared in 1596, only some forty years after the arrival of St. Francis Xavier, and was one of the outstanding literary productions of the period. There seems to be special significance in the fact that this book was chosen. Probably the Fathers thought it was a work most likely to find sympathetic readers among the Japanese, and it is noteworthy that since then there have been at least four more renderings. Unfortunately, religious persecutions, which began at the beginning of the seventeenth century and lasted until 1870, wiped out virtually everything in Japan related to Christianity. Japan's acquaintance with mediaeval philosophy actually begins with the re-introduction of Western thought in the latter part of the nineteenth century. But the history of scholasticism in Japan cannot be divorced, if it is to be understood, from the progress in that country of western philosophy in general. And so a synopsis of Japan's reaction to some important European thinkers may helpfully preface a study of Japan's attitude towards mediaeval philosophy in general and Thomism in particular. I Five periods may be distinguished in the career of European philosophy in Japan. Period I: 1878-1890-from the inception of the department of philosophy in the Imperial University of 250 JAPAN, PHILOSOPHY AND THOMISM 251 Tokyo 1 to the opening of the National Diet. This period was marked by what may be called a Japanese equivalent of the Enlightenment in political and philosophical thought. The new government of Emperor Meiji, which overthrew the old and entrenched feudal despotism in 1868, at least professed democratic principles and promised the people equal social, political and economic opportunities as well as a share in government. The spirit of the times was practicaL It aimed at destroying feudalism, establishing democratic processes and accelerating economic expansion. These objectives were manifest in the European philosophical systems which, because of what they might be expected to contribute to the new outlook, were seized upon by Japanese intellectuals. Emphasis was on political, economic, social and legal theories. Writers such as Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), J. J. Rousseau (1712-1778), and C. L. Montesquieu (1689-1755) were read, studied, absorbed and popularized. Translations appeared, and the doctrine of the divine origin of human rights proved especially captivating, spreading beyond academic walls into popular discussion. J. S. Mill (1806-1873), with his Utilitarianism, and Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) found ardent champions. Darwin (1809-1882), with his theory of evolution, and Ernest Haeckel (1834-1919), with his materialism, also won followers. Period II: 1890-1905-from the opening of the National Diet to the end of the Russo-Japanese War, is doubly ;ignificant . For one thing, philosophical and critical thinking becomes more and more isolated from contemporary social and political movements and more restricted to academic theorizing. The other development is the cultivation of German philosophers, such as Kant (1724-1804), Hegel (1770-1831), Schopenhauer (1788-1860), Eduard von Hartmann (1842-1906), Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), Johannes Volkelt (1848-1930), Nietzsche (1844-1900), and R. H. I.otze (1817-1881) . It is noteworthy 1 From the beginning, the Imperial University of Tokyo was, and continues to be, preeminent in philosophical movements. Other Japanese universities tend to accept and follow its leadership. 252 B. R. INAGAKI AND J. B. MCALLISTER that the disassociation of philosophy from practical considerations parallels the introduction and cultivation of German writers. Period HI: 1905-1918-from the end of the Russo-Japanese War to the dose of World War I. Japan's victory over Russia touched off tremendous economic expansion. National industry soared while in philosophy German idealism predominated. Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel proved most attractive. Their major works were translated; their doctrines were studied privately and presented in formal university courses. Raphael von Koeber (1848-1923) came to enjoy immense prestige among the young students at the...