L2 Japanese Research Articles

Multimodal training on L2 Japanese pitch accent: learning outcomes, neural correlates and subjective assessments

Abstract Japanese pitch accent is phonemic, making it crucial for second-language learners to acquire. Building on theories of multimodal learning, the present study explored how auditory, visual and gestural training of Japanese pitch accent affected behavioral, neural and meta-cognitive aspects of pitch perception across two experiments. Experiment 1 used a between-subjects pre/posttest design to train native English speakers to perceive Japanese pitch accents in one of the following three conditions: (1) baseline (audio + flat notation), (2) pitch height notation (audio + notation mimicking pitch height) and (3) pitch height notation + a left-hand gesture (L-gesture) (to engage the contralateral right hemisphere specialized for suprasegmental pitch processing). Our results indicated that (2) pitch height notation training was most robust in its benefits, as participants in this condition improved on trained and novel words alike. Experiment 2 used a within-subjects design to extend Experiment 1 in three ways: adding a right-hand gesture (R-gesture) condition (to engage more segmental language areas in the left hemisphere), introducing a neural correlate of cognitive load (measured by EEG alpha and theta power) and performing a metacognitive subjective assessment of learning (e.g., ‘Which training did you find the most helpful?’). The results showed that although there were no differences among our four training conditions on learning outcomes or EEG power, participants made the most positive subjective evaluations about pitch height notation and R-gesture training. Together, the results suggest that there may be a ‘just right’ amount of multimodal instruction to boost learning and increase engagement during foreign language pitch instruction.

Teaching pragmatics to instructors of L2 Japanese: A relevance-theoretic approach

There are few continuing professional development (CPD) courses for language instructors who want to incorporate the teaching of pragmatics, particularly outside second and foreign language (L2) English and Spanish (e.g., Cohen et al., 2023; Vellenga, 2011). Furthermore, most courses rarely include pragmatics theories that describe the cognitive processes involved in communication. To address this gap, this study assesses what pre-service and in-service instructors of L2 Japanese (n = 9) know about pragmatics and presents data from a 3-hCPD course. The CPD is based on Sperber & Wilson's (1986/1995) Relevance Theory, an ostensive-inferential pragmatics theory that explains the cognitive mechanisms used to interpret utterances. These cognitive processes and how to teach them are explained through a pedagogical framework that equips instructors with the pragmatic knowledge and tools needed to help their learners achieve effective communication.A qualitative pre- and post-test was employed to ascertain instructors' knowledge of pragmatics and ability to activate their pragmatic competence. Focus groups with each cohort were conducted to gather insights into instructors' willingness and preparedness to teach pragmatics. The CPD increased both participants' understanding of pragmatics and knowledge of how to activate learners' pragmatic competence. The data also reveals differences between pre-service and in-service teachers, as well as native and non-native speakers’ willingness to include pragmatics in their teaching.

Evaluating the effectiveness of a computerised dynamic assessment of L2 English email requests

Automated writing evaluation can be effective in providing support for L2 English learners. However, little research to date has investigated its use in the teaching of pragmatics in relation to L2 email writing, grounded in a sociocultural perspective on learning. We employ a quasi-experimental approach, investigating the effectiveness of a computerised dynamic assessment programme (C-DA) of L2 email writing, focusing on pragmatic development. The C-DA employs a developmentally sensitive approach, providing automated, immediate mediation to learners. The C-DA was administered twice – with a two-week delay between administrations – to a single group of 17 Japanese English L2 learner participants at a Japanese university; participants were 19–22 years of age with intermediate L2 proficiency levels. Text, identified pragmatic failure and mediation data were elicited from both administrations. Analysis of pragmatic failure frequency and explicitness of the mediation necessary for successful resolution of the identified pragmatic failure shows both frequency and explicitness decreasing not only within a round of administration, but also between rounds. Evidence of learner development was found across all types of pragmatic failure, including the requesting head act, email openings and closings. The study provides evidence to support a sociocultural approach to assessment and learning with regards to the pragmatics aspect of L2 email writing, in which mediation is sensitive to individual learners’ developmental needs. Further, findings support the use of a computerised approach to DA focusing on pragmatic competence, allowing for wider access to DA methodology among large learner group contexts.

Examining Cross-linguistic Influence of Japanese Word Order: An Eye-Tracking Study on L2 English Learners’ Text Comprehension

Cross-linguistic influence is a systematic and unavoidable feature of language learning. This study aimed to investigate whether prepositive word order in Japanese noun clauses can serve as a cross-linguistic influence element in the acquisition of relative clauses (a form of a postpositive modifier) in English. To test this hypothesis, this study conducted an eye-tracking experiment with native Japanese speakers and showed the following results statistically. First, Japanese participants generally paid more attention to modifier clauses than the noun phrases they modified when reading English sentences with relative clauses. Second, when interpreting accusative relative clauses, longer fixations were observed both in the modifier clauses and in the antecedents, likely due to their complexity for Japanese L2 learners of English, as evidenced by the lowest accuracy rate. Finally, and most notably, the findings revealed that the participants who had not fully acquired the relative clause construction focused more on the left side of the relative pronoun than those who had. This tendency was most prominent when interpreting subjective relative clauses, a result that supports the hypothesis that prepositive L1 modifiers could be a CLI element in the acquisition of English postpositive modifiers.

An examination of phrase-frames in L2 english academic writing: Exploring relationships with writing quality

Corpus research has increasingly highlighted the importance of formulaic language (e.g., lexical bundles, n-grams) in various genres and registers. However, less attention has been paid to the value of discontinuous formulaic sequences. The present study extends research of this kind by targeting the use of phrase-frames (multi-word sequences with an internal variable slot [e.g., the * of the]) in relation to proficiency differences in L2 English academic essays produced by L1 Japanese university students. All texts were written in response to a common prompt, composed under similar conditions, and graded by trained raters. These essays were then assigned to high or low proficiency groupings based on the rating they received. Phrase frames of 4- and 5-words were extracted and analyzed for type count, token count, variability, and predictability differences. Major findings included higher proficiency writers making more frequent use of 4- and 5-word phrase frames (types and tokens), as well as using less variable, more predictable frames. Methodological and pedagogical implications of these findings are discussed.

Impact of Japanese L1 Rhythm on English L2 Speech.

The study aimed to examine whether L1 speech rhythm affects L2 speech by assessing how the speech rhythm of Japanese L2 English speakers differed from native speakers. We chose Japanese and English because they differ markedly in the phonological properties that likely contribute to speech rhythm. Speech rhythm was measured by the variability of vowel and consonant intervals using rate-normalized rhythm metrics (VarcoV and VarcoC; nPVI-V and nPVI-C) and %V. The study utilized recordings of spoken sentences in English by 10 native Australian English speakers; and in English and also in Japanese by 10 native Japanese speakers (who had limited experience in speaking English). Experiment 1 compared the rhythm of L1 English (by measuring 1,750 vowels and 3,093 consonants from 20 sentences) and L1 Japanese (1,923 vowels and 2,097 consonants from 10 sentences). The results showed that for all measures, Japanese had reduced durational variability in both consonant and vowel intervals compared with English. In Experiment 2, we examined the rhythm characteristics of L1 and L2 English using 40 sentences (including the 20 in Experiment 1). The results showed that vowel and consonant intervals were less variable in L2 (Japanese English) than in L1 (Australian English) speech, mirroring the results of Experiment 1. Overall, the results are consistent with the proposal that L1 (Japanese) speech rhythm influenced L2 (English) speech.

The effects of distributed practice on second language fluency development

Abstract This study examined the effects of distributed practice on second language (L2) speech fluency development. A total of 116 Japanese L2 learners of English were randomly divided into experimental or control conditions. Learners assigned to the experimental groups engaged in four fluency training sessions either in a short-spaced (1-day interval) or long-spaced (7-day interval) condition. Although different learning trajectories were observed during the training phase, the posttests conducted 7 and 28 days after the training showed similar fluency gains for the two groups, indicating that short- and long-spaced conditions were equally effective for developing L2 fluency. The current study extends the line of research in distributed practice and task repetition for L2 fluency development.

The impact of loanwords on the English–Japanese version of vocabulary size test

The Vocabulary Size Test (VST) measures English learners’ decontextualised receptive vocabulary knowledge of written English and has nine bilingual versions with multiple-choice options written in other languages. This study used the English–Japanese version of the VST to investigate the extent to which loanword items were answered correctly by Japanese first language (L1) university students compared to non-loanword items, and whether it was easier to answer these loanword items when the correct answer option was written in loanwords rather than Japanese-words. Paired t-tests showed a significant difference in correct response rates between the loanword and non-loanword items, and the loanword options and Japanese-word options, with a large effect size. The results suggest the relative ease of learning English loanwords compared to non-loanwords for L1 Japanese users, and the need to consider the use of loanwords in vocabulary tests to measure test-takers’ vocabulary size more accurately.

Narratives of Japanese nuclear immigrants in New Zealand: (in)(di)vesting in L2 and identity

ABSTRACT This article reports on a study that investigated the language learning and identity negotiation experiences of Japanese adults, nuclear immigrants, who left Japan and arrived in New Zealand after the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident. Drawing on theories of investment, capital and communities of practice, the study explores how the nuclear immigrants negotiate their identities as L2 English learners and users within their New Zealand communities, both the L2 community and the L1 Japanese immigrant community infused with its own cultural and political ideologies. The study also asks why and how they invest or divest in English language learning and using practices. Data was collected via biographical narrative interviews from eight participants. Thematic narrative analysis identified themes which were interpreted in relation to dimensions of social activity represented by micro, meso, and macro levels. The findings indicate that the valuing and acceptance of the participants’ pre-existing capital serve as affordances to affirm and expand their identity, while rejection of their competence by sociocultural norms resulted in their withdrawal from the L2 communities, which eventually caused divestment in L2.

Machine translation as a form of feedback on L2 writing

Abstract With advances in artificial intelligence (AI), many language teachers have started exploring the classroom implications of AI-powered technology, including machine translation (MT). To examine the usefulness of MT technology in writing instruction, we conducted a mixed-methods study comparing two types of written feedback: comprehensive direct Teacher Corrective Feedback (TCF), and MT feedback. Participants were 23 Japanese university students in an intact L2 writing classroom. Sample size adequacy was confirmed through a priori power analysis. Participants were instructed to describe a picture prompt in L2 English and then in L1 Japanese. Half the participants received first TCF then MT on their L2 English text, while the order was reversed for the other half. Participants in both conditions were then asked to study the feedback and describe the same picture prompt without the feedback. In the following phase, both groups completed the same tasks in reverse order. Participants also responded to a survey exploring their engagement with the feedback. Results reveal that: 1) TCF improved complexity; 2) MT improved accuracy and fluency; and 3) variation in outcomes may be explained by the different ways in which participants engaged with both TCF and MT. Implications for appropriate classroom use of MT are discussed.

A collostructional approach to Japanese noun-modifying clause construction use and acquisition: a learner corpus study

Abstract Japanese features a general noun-modifying clause construction (NMCC) with a more versatile range of semantic and pragmatic interpretations than equivalent constructions in other languages. Motivated by the learning challenge NMCCs pose to Japanese as a foreign language (JFL) learners, this article examines speech data from the International Corpus of Japanese as a Second Language (I-JAS) to compare learner use of NMCCs against a large L1 Japanese corpus. Instances of the construction from both corpora were analyzed to identify high-frequency part-of-speech categories and subcategories in the modifying clause predicate and head noun slots. A simple collexeme analysis was then employed to identify strongly attracted and repelled lexical items among those identified in realizations of the construction. Taken together, findings from these analyses revealed an important connection between the semantic weight of head nouns in NMCCs and the idiomaticity of the construction, with learner productions demonstrating a tendency toward heavy head nouns. This study lays the groundwork for future research seeking to explore the NMCC at different levels of granularity and to improve its treatment in JFL pedagogical materials.

The Effects of Orthography on the Pronunciation of Nasal Vowels by L1 Japanese Learners of L3 French: Evidence from a Longitudinal Study of Speech in Interaction

In recent decades, a vast literature has documented crosslinguistic influences on the acquisition of L2 phonology and in particular the effects of spelling on pronunciation. However, articulating these research findings in terms of taking into account the effects of L1 phonology and spelling on L2 pronunciation in language teaching remains to be examined. These studies are based on experimental cross-sectional methods and mainly focus on L2 English learning by speakers of languages with an alphabetic system. In French, there are few studies on crosslinguistic influences on the acquisition of the nasal vowels (/ɑ~/, /ↄ~/ and /ε~/) and few experimental studies that point to a possible effect of orthography on the pronunciation of these phonemes. The results of experimental studies are difficult to transpose to the language classroom because they are based on word or sentence reading and writing activities, which are quite far-removed from the conversational activities practised in the classroom in interaction with peers and the teacher. Hence, we opted here for a case study of the effect of spelling on the production of nasal vowels in interaction tasks. We conducted a longitudinal study during the first year of extensive learning of French (4 hrs 30 per week). The results of a perceptive analysis by expert listeners show that (i) learners spell nasal vowels with an <n> or <m> in 98% of the obligatory contexts; (ii) most nasal vowels are perceived as nasal vowels in speech (72%), the others being perceived as vowels followed by a nasal consonant (19, 5%) or as oral vowels (8.5%); (iii) consonantisation is stronger when the learner spontaneously produces a word than when (s)he repeats it, (iv) which decreases with time (learning effect) and varies (v) according to the consonant, /ε~/ being less consonantised than /ↄ~/ and /ɑ~/. Finaly, we propose a didactic discussion in the light of intelligibility and influence of orthography.

L1 Japanese Perceptual Drift in Late Learners of L2 English

This study presents evidence of second language (L2) influence on first language (L1) perception of alveolar stops. Sixty-one L1 Japanese late learners of L2 English (onset ~12 years old) in Japan (N = 31) and in the US (N = 30) participated. We examined late L2 learners’ L2 perceptual ability and L1 perception drift by administering three perception tasks (AX discrimination, forced categorization, and goodness rating) on word-initial stop consonants. The L2 learners’ L1 Japanese and L2 English data were compared to those of Japanese and English monolinguals, respectively (N = 21, N = 16). All participants’ production data were also gathered to examine potential perception-production relationships. Late learners’ sensitivity patterns along a synthesized /da–ta/ continuum differed significantly from those of monolingual speakers, with a sensitivity peak location between the monolingual Japanese and English groups. This suggests that late learners’ voicing category boundaries may have been influenced by L2 English learning. The L2 learners’ goodness rating patterns of L1 Japanese stimuli also showed evidence of L1 perceptual drift: L2 learners tended to be more accepting of Japanese stimuli with longer VOTs compared to Japanese monolinguals.

Formant dynamics in second language speech: Japanese speakers' production of English liquids.

This article reports an acoustic study analysing the time-varying spectral properties of word-initial English liquids produced by 31 first-language (L1) Japanese and 14 L1 English speakers. While it is widely accepted that L1 Japanese speakers have difficulty in producing English /l/ and /ɹ/, the temporal characteristics of L2 English liquids are not well-understood, even in light of previous findings that English liquids show dynamic properties. In this study, the distance between the first and second formants (F2-F1) and the third formant (F3) are analysed dynamically over liquid-vowel intervals in three vowel contexts using generalised additive mixed models (GAMMs). The results demonstrate that L1 Japanese speakers produce word-initial English liquids with stronger vocalic coarticulation than L1 English speakers. L1 Japanese speakers may have difficulty in dissociating F2-F1 between the liquid and the vowel to a varying degree, depending on the vowel context, which could be related to perceptual factors. This article shows that dynamic information uncovers specific challenges that L1 Japanese speakers have in producing L2 English liquids accurately.

The role of agency in language socialization

Abstract Drawing on longitudinal data from the perspective of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory, I portray how L2 language socialization is promoted by an L2 user’s agency borne out of his Ideal L2 self. This paper first showcases a decade-long longitudinal OPI (Oral Proficiency Interview) data set elicited from an L2 Japanese user who speaks Korean as his L1, focusing on the process of affective adverb acquisition observed through transformations in his speech style. Then, employing the Trajectory Equifinality Approach (TEA), I examine holistically how changes in the use of affective adverbs reflects the L2 user’s language socialization by visualizing his language environment and language awareness chronically, including his own reflections through retrospective interviews.

Is a quantifier mismatch a problem for L1 Japanese learners of English?

After identifying a linguistic difference between the English quantifier most and the Japanese quantifier hotondo ‘most’ we set out to find if the semantic difference between the two would constitute a learning problem for Japanese second language (L2) learners of English. The difference we hypothesized between the two is that English most is considered “more than half,” while hotondo is “nearly all.” As this semantic difference is not explicitly taught in a classroom environment, acquisition by learners would need to take place through experiencing most in contexts where they might receive contextual clues. An examination of a corpus indicated that contextual clues towards such a semantic difference would be unavailable or rarely available. Two sets of experiments (Experiments 1 and 2) were conducted using the Truth Value Judgment Task methodology. The results of Experiment 1 showed that L2 speakers treated most as meaning “nearly all” but that the level of learner proficiency has an effect. The upper intermediate L2 learner group (Experiment 1a) behaved more like the L1 English speaker group (Experiment 1b) than the lower proficiency L2 group (Experiment 1c). Experiment 2, testing Japanese L1 speakers on their interpretation of Japanese hotondo ‘most,’ revealed that while a majority of participants treated hotondo as “almost all,” there was, somewhat unexpectedly, a group of speakers who interpreted hotondo to mean “more than half.” Therefore, although the possibility cannot completely be eliminated that the result of Experiment 1a is due to L1 transfer, if some Japanese learners of English can unlearn the incorrect meaning, then some prior, if not innate, knowledge that makes the process possible must be available to them.

Feature-driven new sound category formation: computational implementation with the L2LP model and beyond

One of the primary questions of second language (L2) acquisition research is how a new sound category is formed to allow for an L2 contrast that does not exist in the learner's first language (L1). Most models rely crucially on perceived (dis)similarities between L1 and L2 sounds, but a precise definition of what constitutes “similarity” has long proven elusive. The current study proposes that perceived cross-linguistic similarities are based on feature-level representations, not segmental categories. We investigate how L1 Japanese listeners learn to establish a new category for L2 American English /æ/ through a perception experiment and computational, phonological modeling. Our experimental results reveal that intermediate-level Japanese learners of English perceive /æ/ as an unusually fronted deviant of Japanese /a/. We implemented two versions of the Second Language Linguistic Perception (L2LP) model with Stochastic Optimality Theory—one mapping acoustic cues to segmental categories and another to features—and compared their simulated learning results to the experimental results. The segmental model was theoretically inadequate as it was unable explain how L1 Japanese listeners notice the deviance of /æ/ from /a/ in the first place, and was also practically implausible because the predicted overall perception patterns were too native English-like compared to real learners' perception. The featural model, however, showed that the deviance of /æ/ could be perceived due to an ill-formed combination of height and backness features, namely */low, front/. The featural model, therefore, reflected the experimental results more closely, where a new category was formed for /æ/ but not for other L2 vowels /ɛ/, /ʌ/, and /ɑ/, which although acoustically deviate from L1 /e/, /a/, and /o/, are nonetheless featurally well-formed in L1 Japanese, namely /mid, front/, /low, central/, and /mid, back/. The benefits of a feature-based approach for L2LP and other L2 models, as well as future directions for extending the approach, are discussed.

Japanese EFL Speakers’ Willingness to Communicate in L2 Conversations: The Effects of Code-switching and Translanguaging

Maximizing English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ use of their second language (L2), minimizing native language (L1) can help them to develop L2 proficiency. In the monolingual approach, the exclusion of L1 is preferred. However, students’ use of their first language (L1) in code-switching or translanguaging can be advantageous. This study examines the effects of L1 use on six advanced EFL speakers’ willingness to communicate (WTC) during L2 conversations to evaluate the potential advantages of L1 use in an EFL context. Participants were recruited for the study, presented short speeches, and underwent interviews. L2 (English) use was required, but selective use of L1 (Japanese) was allowed. Thus, code-switching and translanguaging were expected. All participant utterances were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed. Participants self-assessed their WTC for each utterance; a stimulated recall interview was used to collect qualitative data. In general, the result showed that the participants’ WTC was somewhat lower when talking in their L1 versus their L2. However, the findings also revealed the complex nature of WTC underlying the use of L1 in the form of code-switching or translanguaging, implying that intentional selective use of L1 can be a positive, effective move in L2 conversations.

Language-specific properties and overt pronoun interpretation:The case of L2 Japanese

Research on second language (L2) pronoun use in null-argument languages has traditionally focused on whether or not a speaker’s first language (L1) also allows null pronouns. However, recent studies have pointed out that it is equally important to consider the specific linguistic properties of overt pronouns in the L1 and L2, which may differ even across two null-argument languages. This study investigates the interpretation and processing of overt pronouns in Japanese by speakers whose L1 (English) and L2 (Japanese) differ not only in whether they allow null arguments, but also in the relative involvement of structural and pragmatic constraints on overt pronoun interpretation. This combination of languages is particularly interesting because English and Japanese overt third-person subject pronouns can be considered at extreme ends of a spectrum: in English they are largely structurally constrained and show a consistent preference for a local subject antecedent, while in Japanese they are loosely constrained by pragmatic factors and show no consistent interpretation preference. Both interpretation and eye-tracking data is recorded, with results suggesting that the unique nature of overt pronouns in Japanese, including their rarity in the input, leads to partial knowledge of them on the lexical level rather than implicating the larger syntactic system or syntax–pragmatics interface.

Examining interlanguage pragmatics from a relevance-theoretic perspective: Challenges in L2 production

AbstractThis paper explores three pragmatic challenges that learners of Japanese as L2 encountered during their study abroad programs and work placements in Japan. These challenges are examined within the framework of Relevance Theory. Research on interlanguage pragmatics of L2 Japanese is limited in scope, as studies mostly focus on speech acts and other sociolinguistic and interactional strategies. As a result, researchers have yet to formally establish how learners of Japanese have difficulties in regard to their production of meaning. This study draws on open-ended questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions to determine the pragmatic competence of L2 students across two Irish universities. The study demonstrates that learners have difficulties with processing both linguistic encoding and phenomena that involve inference. That is, learners’ inability to activate their pragmatic competence hinders their ability to produce communicative acts. Findings lend support to the need to enhance pragmatic competence among L2 learners through specific cognitive processes. This paper also contributes to the need for interlanguage pragmatics to be pursued in conjunction with current developments in Relevance Theory. It is argued that ideas developed within Relevance Theory can be particularly beneficial to the teaching and learning of pragmatic competence in the L2 classroom.