Japanese-English Research Articles

Evaluating the effectiveness of a computerised dynamic assessment of L2 English email requests

Automated writing evaluation can be effective in providing support for L2 English learners. However, little research to date has investigated its use in the teaching of pragmatics in relation to L2 email writing, grounded in a sociocultural perspective on learning. We employ a quasi-experimental approach, investigating the effectiveness of a computerised dynamic assessment programme (C-DA) of L2 email writing, focusing on pragmatic development. The C-DA employs a developmentally sensitive approach, providing automated, immediate mediation to learners. The C-DA was administered twice – with a two-week delay between administrations – to a single group of 17 Japanese English L2 learner participants at a Japanese university; participants were 19–22 years of age with intermediate L2 proficiency levels. Text, identified pragmatic failure and mediation data were elicited from both administrations. Analysis of pragmatic failure frequency and explicitness of the mediation necessary for successful resolution of the identified pragmatic failure shows both frequency and explicitness decreasing not only within a round of administration, but also between rounds. Evidence of learner development was found across all types of pragmatic failure, including the requesting head act, email openings and closings. The study provides evidence to support a sociocultural approach to assessment and learning with regards to the pragmatics aspect of L2 email writing, in which mediation is sensitive to individual learners’ developmental needs. Further, findings support the use of a computerised approach to DA focusing on pragmatic competence, allowing for wider access to DA methodology among large learner group contexts.

Impact of Japanese L1 Rhythm on English L2 Speech.

The study aimed to examine whether L1 speech rhythm affects L2 speech by assessing how the speech rhythm of Japanese L2 English speakers differed from native speakers. We chose Japanese and English because they differ markedly in the phonological properties that likely contribute to speech rhythm. Speech rhythm was measured by the variability of vowel and consonant intervals using rate-normalized rhythm metrics (VarcoV and VarcoC; nPVI-V and nPVI-C) and %V. The study utilized recordings of spoken sentences in English by 10 native Australian English speakers; and in English and also in Japanese by 10 native Japanese speakers (who had limited experience in speaking English). Experiment 1 compared the rhythm of L1 English (by measuring 1,750 vowels and 3,093 consonants from 20 sentences) and L1 Japanese (1,923 vowels and 2,097 consonants from 10 sentences). The results showed that for all measures, Japanese had reduced durational variability in both consonant and vowel intervals compared with English. In Experiment 2, we examined the rhythm characteristics of L1 and L2 English using 40 sentences (including the 20 in Experiment 1). The results showed that vowel and consonant intervals were less variable in L2 (Japanese English) than in L1 (Australian English) speech, mirroring the results of Experiment 1. Overall, the results are consistent with the proposal that L1 (Japanese) speech rhythm influenced L2 (English) speech.

Sociocultural Influences on Young Japanese English Learners: The Impact of Parents’ Beliefs on Learning Motivation

Sociocultural Influences on Young Japanese English Learners: The Impact of Parents’ Beliefs on Learning Motivation

The impact of loanwords on the English–Japanese version of vocabulary size test

The Vocabulary Size Test (VST) measures English learners’ decontextualised receptive vocabulary knowledge of written English and has nine bilingual versions with multiple-choice options written in other languages. This study used the English–Japanese version of the VST to investigate the extent to which loanword items were answered correctly by Japanese first language (L1) university students compared to non-loanword items, and whether it was easier to answer these loanword items when the correct answer option was written in loanwords rather than Japanese-words. Paired t-tests showed a significant difference in correct response rates between the loanword and non-loanword items, and the loanword options and Japanese-word options, with a large effect size. The results suggest the relative ease of learning English loanwords compared to non-loanwords for L1 Japanese users, and the need to consider the use of loanwords in vocabulary tests to measure test-takers’ vocabulary size more accurately.

Is Referent Reintroduction More Vulnerable to Crosslinguistic Influence? An Analysis of Referential Choice among Japanese–English Bilingual Children

This study aims to examine whether a crosslinguistic influence (CLI) is exerted on the referring expressions of the spoken narratives of Japanese–English bilingual children in different discourse contexts. Thirteen early bilingual (school-age) children separately presented Japanese and English narratives for a wordless picture book and a speechless video clip. Further, seven Japanese and nine English monolingual children participated as controls. The linguistic devices that the children adopted to introduce, reintroduce, and maintain the topic were compared with those of their monolingual controls to detect any CLI. As predicted, CLI for English on Japanese was observed but not vice versa. In Japanese, bilinguals utilize significantly more noun phrases (NPs) compared with their monolingual counterparts. More crucially, this was observed only in the referent reintroduction context, indicating that only discourse contexts that require the integration of much pragmatic information may be vulnerable to English influence. Null forms are barely utilized in English narratives; thus, no influence from Japanese was observed. We present the referential choice patterns in the elicited spoken narratives of bilingual school-age children acquiring an under-researched language pair. By controlling for the discourse context, we demonstrate that CLI is more likely to manifest in the reintroduction context. These findings offer additional evidence for the interface and structural overlap hypothesis, further highlighting the criticality of considering information structure as an influencing condition.

Language change in Japanese–English bilingual returnee children over the course of five years: Evidence from accent-rating

Few studies have examined global foreign accent (GFA) in bilingual children, and little is known about how GFA changes over time and what factors determine change. Here, we examine GFA trajectories in Japanese–English bilingual returnees (Japanese children who returned to Japan after having lived in a majority English environment for several years). In two accent-rating tasks, first language (L1) speakers of English or Japanese rated returnee speech excerpts recorded at three time points over a five-year period. The ratings show a decrease in Japanese GFA one year after return to Japan, and an increase in English GFA, but only five years after return. These findings suggest rapid re-exposure effects of the L1 and relatively stable maintenance of the second language (L2). Changes varied by L2 English age of onset (AoO) and exposure to L2 English while abroad, suggesting a crucial role for these individual factors in transitory contexts such as returnee bilingualism.

Speech adaptation in conversation: Effects of segment cue-weighting strategy for non-native speakers

Research has investigated how speakers make phonetic adaptations by adjusting their speech sounds to either converge to or diverge from their interlocutor’s. Less is known about the dynamic adaptive strategies non-native speakers use to improve intelligibility when interacting with native speakers, particularly how their strategies change over the course of spontaneous conversations. The current study examines phonetic adaptations in English words contrasting tense and lax vowels (e.g., sheep-ship) in unscripted conversations between non-native Japanese English and native English speakers during an engaging computer game task. Japanese speakers have previously been found to rely on temporal cues (vowel length) for tensity distinctions due to their L1 cue-weighting strategy rather than spectral cues (vowel quality) that are predominantly used in English. Acoustic analyses are conducted to examine changes in non-native vowel productions before, during and after the conversation task. We predict that, in an attempt to overcome miscommunication, non-native speakers may initially lengthen the tense vowels to distinguish them from their lax counterparts. As the conversation progresses, non-native speakers may adapt to a more native-like cue-weighting pattern by shifting to spectral distinctions. Results are discussed in terms of adaptations to cue-weighting strategies for intelligibility gains by interlocutors of different linguistic backgrounds.

Autism and bilingual socialisation: parents’ perspectives and youth language practices in three bilingual (Japanese–English) families

ABSTRACT This study of three bilingual families with autistic children in the U.S. examines parents’ perspectives on bilingual socialisation and analyzes language practices in everyday family interactions. When their children were diagnosed with autism in early childhood, parents in all three families were advised by professionals to speak exclusively in English at home. One set of parents attempted to adhere to the clinician recommendation, while the other two families disregarded this advice. Data collection for this study included questionnaires, open-ended interviews, and 30–32 h of naturally occurring interactions per family. The study employs discourse analysis to explore parents’ stances toward the monolingual recommendation, their discussions about past decisions, and their assessments of their present-day, adolescent children’s language practices. The micro-analytic study of the organisation of family interactions provides a supplemental perspective and highlights the agency of the autistic youth in navigating bilingual conversations. The findings reveal the tensions between institutional and family language policies and detail how youth draw from their respective linguistic repertoires in everyday interactions.

Can Learners Understand Words with Derivational Affixes and Does Presence of Context Make a Difference?

Language teachers need to be aware of the factors that influence their students’ comprehension of second language words. This study explores: (a) whether learner knowledge about base words and knowledge about their corresponding derivational forms (DF) is significantly different: and (b) if the presence or absence of context influences the relative difficulty of related DF. A meaning-recall test format was used to measure the knowledge about various forms of five high frequency base words ( accept, help, move, operate and read) among a cohort of 150 tertiary-level Japanese English as a foreign language learners. Two hypotheses are tested: (a) that there would be a strong interdependence between learner knowledge about base words and DF (with single and multiple affixes) from the same word family; and (b) that DF presented in context would be easier for learners than those presented without context. Results suggest that for these target words among this cohort, each hypothesis should be rejected. Specific pedagogical recommendations for the development of knowledge about DF among L2 learners are provided. The discussion addresses the importance of classroom teachers refining the heuristics used to guide pedagogy and that the strategic collection of learner data via formative assessment is crucial to this process.

An investigation of Moroccan EFL Learners’ Explicit Attitudes towards World Englishes: Pedagogical Implications

The present study seeks to investigate the attitudes of Moroccan EFL learners (MEFLLs) towards different varieties of English speech (World Englishes (WE)). The study utilises a direct method of attitude measurement as the study’s participants are directly asked about their own explicit attitudes towards six English varieties of English speech[1] (namely, American English, British English, Indian English, Filipino English, Japanese English and Thai English). A sample of 544 MEFLLs was recruited in the study. The findings of the study show that MEFLLs’ attitudes towards varieties of English are aligned, to some extent, with those of previous studies conducted elsewhere (Jindapitak & Teo, 2012; Chien, 2018; Almegren, 2017). For example, it was found that MEFLLs, on the one hand, prefer Inner Circle Englishes (ICE) over Outer Circle Englishes (OCE) and Outer Circle Englishes over Expanding Circle Englishes (ECE) on the other hand. Another interesting finding is that the participants surveyed are already aware of English language variation, and they are willing to learn more about the different varieties of English spoken worldwide. Generally speaking, the Moroccan context seems to be a fertile setting for the discussion of World Englishes-related issues as the participants do, in fact, recognise and appreciate the sociolinguistic variation exhibited in the English language. The study concludes with a number of pedagogical implications for the choice of linguistic model(s) to be employed in EFL classrooms both inside and outside Morocco.
 
 [1] American English, AmE; British English, BrE; Indian English, InE; Filipino English, FiE; Japanese English, JpE; Thai English, ThE

Doubts on the reliability of parallel corpus filtering

Parallel corpus filtering (PCF) aims to filter out low-quality data residing in parallel corpora. Recently, deep learning-based methods have been employed to assess the quality of sentence pairs in a parallel corpus, along with rule-based filtering that filters out noisy data depending on the pre-defined error types. Despite their utilization, to the best of our knowledge, a comprehensive investigation into the practical applicability and interpretability of PCF techniques remains unexplored. In this study, we raise two doubts on deep learning-based PCF: (i) Can deep learning-based PCF extract high-quality data? and (ii) Are scoring functions of PCF reliable? To answer these questions, we conduct comparative experiments on various PCF techniques with four datasets on two language pairs, English–Korean, and English–Japanese. Through the experiments, we demonstrate that the performance of the deep learning-based PCF highly depends on the targeting parallel corpus, and shows fluctuating adaptability depending on their characteristics. In particular, we figure out that high-scored sentences derived by the PCF technique do not necessarily guarantee high-quality results, rather it shows unintended preference.

The mediative role of learning materials: Raising L2 learners’ awareness of silence and conversational repair during L2 interaction

This conceptual article explores the role of pedagogical mediation in raising Japanese English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ awareness of cross-culturally diverse roles of silence and conversational repair strategies during turn-taking in second language (L2) interaction as seen from an interactional perspective. This study delves into the nexus of scholarly and pedagogical perspectives, accommodating Japanese EFL learners’ interactional needs to self-mediate own silence as an interactional resource by using repair strategies in L2 interaction. It specifically examines the pedagogical approaches reflected in English language teaching (ELT) materials designed for Japanese EFL learners, aiming to raise awareness of multi-faceted use of silence and repair as a part of cross-culturally invisible turn-taking practices from three perspectives: (1) pedagogical approaches involving silence in L2 interaction in scholarly articles, (2) learning materials produced specifically for Japanese EFL learners and (3) Japanese EFL learners’ perspectives on Conversation Analysis-informed learning resources identified in empirical studies. Drawing on this analysis, this study aims to deepen our understanding of current practices and bridge the gap between theory and practice to facilitate L2 learners’ interactional repertoires through material development informed by a holistic perspective.

ChatGPT as a Grammar Checker for Japanese English Language Learners: A Comparison with Grammarly and ProWritingAid

The introduction of ChatGPT by OpenAI in November 2022 has garnered much discussion and debate. The technology’s potential, which generates conversations in real-time using machine learning and natural language processing methods, has led to fears of job displacement (Lowrey, 2023) and student cheating (Mitchell, 2023; Cotton et al., 2023). However, the technology has not only brought fear, but also great expectations on the potential of the technology as a helpful educational aid (Ceres, 2023) and in expanding human potential (Hoffman, 2023). In this article, the use of ChatGPT is explored as a way to help students understand and improve their English grammar in comparison with Grammarly and ProWritingAid. A short text by a Japanese university is analyzed using Grammarly, ProWritingAid, and ChatGPT. The results found that, overall, ChatGPT provides the most helpful and best overall solution in helping Japanese English Language Learners (ELLs) with their grammar. Based on the results of the ChatGPT analysis, the application was introduced to first-year Japanese university students in a paragraph writing assignment. Questionnaire results on how students felt about the use of ChatGPT as a grammar-checker are presented.

Attitudinal Study of Users of Japanese English

Attitudinal Study of Users of Japanese English

Bidirectional cross-linguistic influence with different-script languages: Evidence from eye tracking

AbstractThis study compared patterns of nonselective cross-language activation in L1 and L2 visual word recognition with different-script bilinguals. The aim was to determine (1) whether lexical processing is nonselective in the L1 (as in L2), and (2) if the same cross-linguistic factors affected processing similarly in each language. To examine the time course of activation, eye movements were tracked during lexical decision. Thirty-two Japanese–English bilinguals responded to 250 target words in Japanese and in English. The same participants and items (i.e., cognate translation equivalents) were used to directly compare L1 and L2 processing. Response latencies as well as eye movements representing early and late processing were analyzed using mixed-effects regression modeling. Similar cross-linguistic effects, namely cognate word frequency, phonological similarity, and semantic similarity, were found in both languages. These factors affected processing to different degrees in each language, however. While cognate frequency was significant as early as the first fixation, effects of cross-linguistic phonological and semantic similarity arose later in time. Increased phonological similarity slowed responses in L2 but speeded them in L1, while greater semantic overlap was facilitatory in both languages. Results are discussed from the perspective of the BIA+ model of visual word recognition.

ENGLISH LEARNING GOALS AND WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE: A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS IN A JAPANESE EFL CONTEXT

This study examined the differences in English learning goals and specific actions for goal achievement according to the degree of willingness to communicate (WTC) among Japanese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners through qualitative analysis. This study aimed to ascertain: 1) the characteristics of English learning goals among learners with higher or lower levels of WTC, and 2) the differences in learner actions for goal achievement among learners with higher or lower levels of WTC. The participants were 84 undergraduate students in Japan, and they were divided into high-WTC and low-WTC groups using the WTC scale (Peng & Woodrow, 2010). Open-ended responses of the goals for learning English and actions for goal achievement were compared between these two groups using KH Coder 3. Coded data were analyzed in a co-occurrence network diagram. Results showed that high-WTC learners tended to have high-level goals, whereas low-WTC learners tended to have the lowest possible goals. High-WTC learners also had more interest in foreign countries and studying abroad. Furthermore, high-WTC learners tended to take a variety of specific actions for goal achievement, while low-WTC learners took rather general and common actions. The results showed clear differences between these two groups.

Does L2 influence on use of L1 animacy constraints depend on alignment of syntactic and semantic features?: Evidence from Japanese–English bilinguals

Aims and Objectives:English allows inanimate objects to be sentence subjects (e.g., “The knife cut the bread”) but Korean and Japanese restrict subjects of causal sentences on the basis of animacy. In previous work, we found that Korean speakers relaxed their native grammatical animacy constraint when immersed in English (e.g., found knives to be acceptable sentence subjects in Korean). We suggested this L2 influence occurred because the Korean animacy constraint does not map cleanly onto the semantic representation of animacy—some inanimate objects (e.g., “fire”) can be subjects of causal sentences. In the current study, we further test this idea by examining the case of Japanese–English bilinguals. We predict that because the Japanese animacy constraint aligns well with the semantic representation of animacy, it will be less susceptible to L2 influence.Methodology:We first independently assessed the semantic representation of animacy by comparing animacy ratings from native speakers of Korean, Japanese, and English for 60 objects. We then asked Japanese–English bilinguals and Japanese monolinguals to provide grammaticality judgments for sentences that varied in subject animacy.Data and Analysis:We analyzed participants’ animacy ratings and grammaticality judgments using mixed-effects models.Findings:Animacy ratings supported a closer correspondence between semantic representation of animacy and the grammatical animacy constraint for Japanese grammar than for Korean grammar. In contrast to previous results for Korean speakers, Japanese–English bilinguals’ grammaticality judgments did not significantly differ from those of Japanese monolinguals.Originality:The current study is unique in that it suggests the vulnerability of structures at the syntax–semantics interface to L2 influence varies across different language groups based on the alignment between syntactic and semantic features.Implications:The current findings support the possibility that representations at the syntax–semantics interface may only be vulnerable to influence when syntax is incongruent with semantic features.

Challenges and opportunities for expatriate faculty teaching graduation seminar classes in Japanese universities

This paper considers the issues facing expatriate instructors teaching English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) graduation seminars (commonly known as the “zemi” in Japan) in Japanese universities and aims to establish better conditions to build Communities of Practice. Since the term “graduation seminar” is widely used globally, and might lead to preconceptions from readers, zemi is the term that will be used in this paper as a common example of Japanese English. This class is one that typically involves aspects of academic mentoring, pastoral care and socialization that differentiate it from regular classes. Lacking any personal experience of the zemi, teachers educated overseas are likely to have different expectations of the system than their domestic colleagues and students, creating a significant challenge in how they design and implement programmes. To investigate these issues, 14 semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with expatriate teachers of EMI zemis. Common themes described by informants included difficulties in creating a cohesive syllabus with limited support, challenges posed by thesis supervision, and mixed feelings towards mentoring and pastoral care. The data also revealed unique opportunities afforded to foreign instructors of these classes, which were unlikely to be available if they had not been entrusted with teaching a zemi. This paper seeks to fill a gap in the literature and provide insights into how foreign instructors experience the zemi. The knowledge gained can be employed to help develop Communities of Practice for such teachers. It is also hoped it will be of significance to those interested in comparative education, faculty asked to teach within educational systems of which they do not have personal experience, and anyone who works with Japanese learners, either in Japan or as international students.

The Effects of L1 Transfers on L2 English Intransitive Errors by Japanese Learners

Second language (L2) learners of various native languages frequently overpassivize one type of intransitive verbs, namely, unaccusatives (e.g., disappeared, arrivedn). Previous studies have attempted to address the culprit of this issue without reaching a general consensus on the cause of such errors. This study investigates whether first language (L1) plays a role in L2 English overpassivization errors with intransitive verbs by Japanese-speaking learners. It utilizes the framework of the Unaccusative Trap Hypothesis (UTH, Oshita, 2001) and hypothesizes that learners ungrammatically passivize unaccusative verbs due to L1 lexicon and morphology. It also predicts that learners generate passive errors with unergatives (e.g., cry, smile) in the same manner as passive unaccusatives. The study examined three types of intransitives: English non-alternating/Japanese alternating unaccusatives (e.g., happen in English and okiru/okosu in Japanese); English/Japanese non-alternating unaccusatives (e.g., arrive in English and tuku in Japanese); unergatives. The study analyzed a Japanese learners’ corpus (JEFLL Corpus), consisting of approximately 70,000 words from Japanese junior high and high school students. The findings in this study are that Japanese EFL learners tend to passivize more English non-alternating/Japanese alternating unaccusatives and unergatives than English/Japanese non-alternating unaccusatives. Given the result, it can be suggested that Japanese learners passivize unaccusatives owing to the influence of their L1 lexicon and morphology.

Correlation Between Japanese EFL Learners’ Attitudes Toward L1 Dialects and Japanese English

This study explores how Japanese EFL learners’ mindset toward their own regional dialect in Japanese (L1) influences their attitudes toward Japanese English, a recognized variety of English from the viewpoint of “English as an International Language” (EIL). We aim to examine whether Japanese learners’ attitudes toward the L1 dialects they speak can be a criterion to judge who can accept and practice Japanese English positively. Fourteen Japanese college students were divided into two groups–Western and Northeastern Japan–based on the widely held idea that the Western dialect is popular a variety in Japan while the Northeastern dialect is less popular. Students participated in a survey about their dialects, read two articles about English varieties, and wrote about their ideas on Japanese English. The results show that all the students from Western Japan (7) were favorable about their Japanese dialects, and five showed positive attitudes toward Japanese English. In the Northeastern Japan group, more than half of the students showed negative mindsets toward their own Japanese dialects. The overall tendency was that those who answered favorably about their dialects showed positive attitudes toward Japanese English while those who were negative about their L1 dialect also showed negative attitudes toward Japanese English. The results suggest that Japanese EFL learners’ attitudes toward their L1 regional dialect and Japanese English are correlated. The findings can be a benchmark to predict who would agree or disagree with the idea of EIL and help us decide what approaches to take to introduce the concept.