Jan Czochralski Research Articles

Possibilities of developing technology for generating electricity using photovoltaic modules

The purpose of this paper is to present the most commonly used types of photovoltaic panels and principles of their operation. Mono- and polycrystalline cells are presented, with their advantages and disadvantages indicated. The following section describes the process of obtaining electricity by using the photovoltaic and thermoelectric phenomena occurring in cells. Then, the structure and principle of operation of dye cells, thin-film cells and fourth-generation cells were presented on the example of cells using the Schottky junction to generate energy. The article also presents the method of obtaining single crystals of silicon, developed by Jan Czochralski, who lived at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The method he developed laid the foundations for the development of modern integrated circuits - it was a milestone in the development of electronics.

The Figure of Jan Czochralski as an Example of a Scientist, Teacher and Patriot for the Youth of Today to Imitate (1885 – 1953)

The article analyses the life path and activities of the world-recognized Polish scientist, inventor, metallurgist, patron and philanthropist, writer, professor of the Warsaw Polytechnic Jan Czochralski (1885 - 1953). He is considered one of the four most famous and most cited Polish scientists who influenced the development of civilization. In terms of the greatness and significance of his scientific achievements, he is placed in the same row as the world-famous Poles M. Copernicus, M. Skłodowska-Curie, I. Łukasiewicz, who not only glorified Poland, but also changed the world. The purpose of the article is to study and analyze the main milestones of J. Czochralski's creative activity and the role of his scientific achievements. Research methods. Theoretical methods were used as synthesis analysis, systematization, comparison, classification, generalization. The results. The life path, the main stages of Jan Czochralski's activity against the background of historical events of the end of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries are revealed. The trials that the scientist underwent, unjust accusations of helping the Third Reich, and the reasons for his persecution are shown (he was fully rehabilitated only in 2011). Patriotism, hard work, perseverance, humanism, which contributed to successful teaching activities are emphasized as the personal qualities of Jan Czochralski. The most important achievements of the outstanding Polish scientist are analysed: the method of growing silicon single crystals, which are used in modern electronic and digital technology, in solar energy, and in jewellery; the discovery of alloys for railway bearings (known as B-metal); the invention of the radio microscope as the predecessor of the modern atomic force microscope, the enrichment of research tools. Jan Czochralski is a scientist, inventor, metallurgist, and philanthropist. He started processes that we now interpret as technology transfer. He is an author of poetry collections and manuals, a university professor who created a new image of a teacher, an entrepreneur and a person who believed in family values. He was a comprehensively developed personality who combined intellectual achievements and aesthetics, spiritual and moral qualities and hard work. Conclusions. The expediency of wider popularization of the figure of J. Czochralski in modern educational institutions as a comprehensively developed personality, as a model for younger generations to follow is shown.

Occupation as Social Practice and Ambiguous Space: The Lives of Ludwik Hirszfeld and Jan Czochralski in Warsaw, 1939–44

This article evaluates the situation of two renowned scientists in Poland, namely the microbiologist and serologist Ludwik Hirszfeld (1884–1954), and the metallurgist Jan Czochralski (1885–1953), during the time of the German occupation from 1939–45. Both scientists strove to continue their scientific work even under the conditions of occupation but faced substantially different treatment by the occupiers: Hirszfeld was forced to live in the Warsaw Ghetto, while Czochralski was allowed to stay in his home and work at the former Technical University of Warsaw. The article takes a comparative approach and will analyse the life situation of both scientists. This means looking at the limits of action for both scientists on one side, and on the other, at the room for manoeuvre, which, under the conditions of a brutal occupation, either emerged for the two of them or they actively created.

Jan Czochralski – pionier światowej elektroniki i inżynierii materiałowej

The purpose of this paper is to present a biography of Jan Czochralski – one of the world famous scientist of the twentieth century. His main discovery was a method of obtaining single crystals or monocrystalline; the method is nowadays used for production of VLSI/ ULSI circuits. After the Second World War, Czochralski was accused of collaboration with the Germans. The accusation was groundless. In 2019, the Czochralski Method received the IEEE Milestone Award.

Stoffe auf Reisen: Die transnationalen Akteure Jan Czochralski und Ludwik Hirszfeld und die lokale Bedingtheit der Entstehung von Wissen

AbstractAt the beginning of the 20th century, research on material substances such as blood and metals was in high demand, as is apparent from the successful careers of the serologist Ludwik Hirszfeld (1884–1954) and the metallurgist Jan Czochralski (1885–1953). Both were leading experts of their time, their transnational biographies – spanning the German‐speaking countries and Poland – were remarkably similar, and they both played important roles in the development of their respective disciplines. This paper explores how their contributions were closely tied to the circulation of their respective research materials – blood and metals – and of knowledge about them throughout Europe and beyond. These examples forcefully demonstrate that, in order to fully understand how specific, widely accepted bodies of knowledge emerge, both local situations and the material conditions have to be considered. Drawing on Latour's actor‐network theory, the transnational stories of serology and metallurgy demonstrate the range of human and non‐human actors, practices, and techniques that contributed to the circulation of knowledge, to its successful application, and also to occasional failure in specific geographical and cultural contexts.

Odpowiedź na pracę dr. Pawła E. Tomaszewskiego pt. „Komentarz do artykułu Mariusza W. Majewskiego opublikowanego w Studia Historiae Scientiarum 17 (2018), ss. 89–117”

Przedstawiono kilka uzupełniających uwag do tekstu Mariusza W. Majewskiego o Instytucie Metalurgii i Metaloznawstwa Politechniki Warszawskiej oraz o roli prof. Jana Czochralskiego, by pokazać, że temat nie został wyczerpany a pewne sformułowania wymagają korekty. Comments on the paper by Mariusz W. Majewski published in Studia Historiae Scientiarum 17 (2018), pp. 89–117 Several remarks on the text by Mariusz W. Majewski devoted to the history of the Institute of Metallurgy and Metal Science at the Technical University of Warsaw, and on the role of Prof. Jan Czochralski, are presented. The aim was to show that the topic has not been exhausted, and some wordings need correction.

Komentarz do artykułu Mariusza W. Majewskiego opublikowanego w Studia Historiae Scientiarum 17 (2018), ss. 89–117

Niniejszy artykuł jest odpowiedzą na polemiczny komentarz dr. Pawła E. Tomaszewskiego, opublikowany w bieżącym tomie czasopisma Studia Historiae Scientiarum 18 (2019), dotyczący wcześniejszego artykułu autora (M.W. Majewskiego) na temat prac Instytutu Metalurgii i Metaloznawstwa przy Politechnice Warszawskiej oraz uzupełnień do biografii Jana Czochralskiego, opublikowanego w poprzednim tomie czasopisma. Jest dobrze wiadomo, każda próba opracowania historii jakiegokolwiek zagadnienia wymaga podjęcia krytyki źródeł historycznych i pozyskanie informacji zgromadzonej w źródłach archiwalnych, prasie oraz memuarystyce wymaga od badacza podjęcia rzetelnej pracy porównawczej. Jednakże, problem powstaje wówczas, gdy autor przyszłej publikacji dysponuje tylko nielicznymi źródłami, a nawet tylko jednym – tak było w przypadku badań autora (M.W. Majewskiego). Autor udzielił odpowiedzi na nurtujące dr. Pawła E. Tomaszewskiego wątpliwości dotyczące finansowania budowy i wyposażenia Instytutu Metalurgii i Metaloznawstwa przy Politechnice Warszawskiej oraz pochodzenia i prac Jana Czochralskiego. Przybliżono również problematykę Zakładów Hohenlohe SA, „Wspólnoty Interesów” i Wspólnoty Interesów Górniczo-Hutniczych SA. Autor postuluje przeprowadzenie systematycznej zespołowej kwerendy zarówno prasoznawczej, jak i archiwalnej dotyczącej Jana Czochralskiego, a także udostępnienie badaczom archiwów prywatnych dotyczących tej postaci. Pozwoli to tworzyć bardziej ugruntowane źródłowo syntezy historyczne Jana Czochralskiego. Response to the work of Paweł E. Tomaszewski, PhD, entitled “Comments on the paper by Mariusz W. Majewski published in Studia Historiae Scientiarum 17 (2018), pp. 89–117” The article is a response to the polemical commentary by Paweł E. Tomaszewski, PhD, published in the current volume of the journal Studia Historiae Scientiarum 18 (2019), regarding the author’s earlier article on the work of the Institute of Metallurgy and Metal Science at the Warsaw University of Technology with the addenda to the biography of Jan Czochralski, published in the previous volume of the journal. It is well known that any attempt to compile the history of any issue requires critical approach to historical sources and that acquiring information collected in archival sources, the press and memoirs requires from the researcher a diligent and thorough comparative work. However, the problem arises when an author of a future publication has only few sources at his disposal, or even only one, which was the case here. The article answers the doubts bothering Paweł E. Tomaszewski regarding the financing of the construction and equipment of the Institute of Metallurgy and Metallurgy at the Warsaw University of Technology and the origin and work of Jan Czochralski. The issues of the enterprises Zakłady Hohenlohe SA, Wspólnota Interesów and Wspólnota Interesów Górniczo-Hutniczych SA were also discussed. The author proposes that a systematic team inquiry into both press and archival resources regarding Jan Czochralski should be carried out, and researchers should be allowed access to respective private archives. This will allow for a more research-grounded historical syntheses of Jan Czochralski.

Prace Instytutu Metalurgii i Metaloznawstwa przy Politechnice Warszawskiej i Jan Czochralski

The article discusses the issues of implementation of important achievements in the field of metallurgy (including armored weapons, fortifications and the navy), under the supervision of prof. Jan Czochralski, who played an important role in the development of the armed forces of the Second Polish Republic. At the same time, it has been noted that the activities of the institutes were conditioned by the poor development of non-ferrous metallurgy, which contributed to delays in the development of technical thinking in the field of aviation and combustion engines, an important element of the armed forces.

Nauka i uczeni w biografiach Anny Czerwińskiej-Rydel

Publikacje poświęcone nauce stanowią ważną część współczesnego rynku książki dla dzieci. W zdecydowanej większości mają one formę dostosowanych do wieku dziecka leksykonów i miniencyklopedii, zarówno o charakterze ogólnym, jak i poświęconych określonemu wycinkowi rzeczywistości (np. kosmos, dinozaury, zwierzęta, rośliny). Choć są to niewątpliwie pozycje wartościowe, wydaje się, że wychodzą naprzeciw potrzebom specyficznego − i zarazem liczebnie ograniczonego − typu odbiorcy: osób zainteresowanych nauką, niekoniecznie zaś równie chętnie sięgających po literaturę, tzw. „umysłów ścisłych”. Twórczość Anny Czerwińskiej-Rydel, autorki licznych fabularyzowanych biografii (m.in. Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, Jana Heweliusza czy Daniela Fahrenheita) pokazuje jednak, że można z powodzeniem pisać teksty poświęcone nauce, kierowane do zupełnie inaczej, bardziej „literacko”, nastawionego czytelnika.Artykuł jest próbą prezentacji książek autorki poświęconych znanym (jak wyżej wymienieni) i mniej znanym (np. Jan Czochralski czy Elżbieta Heweliusz) naukowcom oraz ich dokonaniom. W szczególności koncentrować się będzie na sposobach prezentowania skomplikowanych zagadnień z zakresu nauk ścisłych przy pomocy poetyki właściwej dla tekstu literackiego.

THE CZOCHRALSKI METHOD (CZ): HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

60 years ago, in July, 1956, the USSR’s first industrial germanium single crystal was grown up by the Czochralski (CZ) method. The method of growing single crystals according to Czochralski is the most widespread one currently used for obtaining bulk single crystals. The high technical implementation level and the high extent of process automation make this method the most preferable one for the production of bulk single crystals, e.g. silicon, germanium, a number of oxide crystals and multicomponent compounds. This article offers a historical review of the emergence and distribution of this method from the time of his invention by Jan Czochralski in 1916 and up to now. It is noted that in foreseeable future the CZ method will remain the leading method of producing bulk single crystals for a wide range of materials in the industry and in scientific developments. The main stages of the development of this method in the USSR and in Russia are presented. Comparison between the levels of foreign and domestic developments in the field of equipment design and in the field of technology development is carried out. Current problems and the development prospects of the method are discussed. Russia currently has an increasing lag from the world–class industrial practice of growing single crystals for a number of important materials e.g. silicon, gallium arsenide, indium antimonite etc.. Scope of actions required from the state, professional community and development institutions are suggested.

Od wazeliny do krzemowej rewolucji: czyli niezwykła historia największego polskiego odkrycia, które zmieniło świat

In August 2016 exactly one hundred years passed from the discovery of the Czochralski method of single crystal pulling, named after Jan Czochralski (1885–1953), the Polish chemist and metallurgist. To celebrate this anniversary, a translation of Czochralski main publication into Polish was published. In the present paper we show the pharmaceutical inspiration which was most likely a source of the discovery of the Czochralski method. We present the evolution of this method up to obtaining huge single crystals of silicon, the fundamental element of contemporary electronics and our civilization.

Uwagi do komentarza Prof. Michała Kokowskiego o badaniach życiorysu Jana Czochralskiego

This is a subsequent (third) part of the polemic on the facts from the life of Jan Czochralski and the difference in the presentation of these facts by amateur and professional historians. The main source of controversy is Jan Czochralski’s voluminous biography entitled Powrót. Rzecz o Janie Czochralskim(2012), English edition: Jan Czochralski restored (2013).

Odpowiedź na list Dr. Pawła E. Tomaszewskiego na temat badań życiorysu Jana Czochralskiego

The author replies to the letter of Dr. Paweł E. Tomaszewski, which is a subsequent (third) stage of the controversy regarding the facts of life of Jan Czochralski and the differences in the way they are presented by an amateur researcher and a professional historian. The source of the controversy is the biography Powrót. Rzecz o Janie Czochralskim (2012), the English edition: Jan Czochralski restored (2013). In the opinion of the author, a professional historian of science may have some reservations regarding the sometimes too popular a style of the publications of Dr. Tomaszewski. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that so far this amateur [i.e. enthusiast] of historical research has done much more regarding the biography and achievements of Jan Czochralski than professional historians and historians of science. This reply concludes the exchange of polemics.

100 Jahre Einkristallzucht aus der Schmelze

AbstractIm August 1916 reichte der Deutsch‐Pole Jan Czochralski eine Publikation über die Wachstumsgeschwindigkeit von Metallkristallen bei der Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie ein. Daher wird 1916 als das Jahr der Entdeckung des Czochralski‐Kristallzuchtverfahrens angesehen. Im Metall‐Laboratorium der AEG, wo Czochralski zunächst arbeitete, wurden seine Forschungsarbeiten nicht gebührend anerkannt, sodass er zur Metallbank und Metallurgischen Gesellschaft (später: Metallgesellschaft) nach Frankfurt wechselte, wo er bald zum Laborleiter und Oberingenieur aufstieg. In Frankfurt machte er sich mit Forschungen zu Metallen und technischen Legierungen rasch einen Namen. Die Entdeckung des Czochralski‐Kristallzuchtverfahrens gehört zu den wichtigsten technologischen Erfindungen des 20. Jahrhunderts, die aber erst in dessen zweiten Hälfte mit dem Aufstieg der Halbleiterindustrie ökonomische Bedeutung erlangte. Heute werden 95 % der Weltproduktion an Siliciumeinkristallen nach dem Czochralski‐Verfahren hergestellt. Der Umsatz der Halbleiter‐Industrie betrug 2015 etwa 335 Milliarden US‐Dollar, wobei die Kristallzucht nach dem Czochralski‐Verfahren jeweils der erste Schritt bei der Herstellung ist. Der größte Teil der heute gefertigten Siliciumeinkristalle hat einen Durchmesser von 300 mm. Die industrielle Produktion von Einkristallen mit 450 mm Durchmesser scheitert bisher nicht an technologischen, sondern an ökonomischen Problemen.

Czochralskiite, Na4Ca3Mg(PO4)4, a second new mineral from the Morasko IAB-MG iron meteorite (Poland)

Czochralskiite, Na 4 Ca 3 Mg(PO 4 ) 4 , is the second new phosphate mineral found in the Morasko IAB-MG iron meteorite. This very rare mineral occurs in phosphate inclusions (nodules) with graphite rims enclosed in the kamacite–taenite matrix of the meteorite. Almost thirty mineral species have been reported from this meteorite (most from various inclusions), including six, possibly eight phosphates (fluorapatite, buchwaldite, brianite, merrillite, moraskoite Na 2 Mg(PO 4 )F, chlorapatite? and whitlockite?), and schreibersite, chromite, enstatite (‘bronzite’), kosmochlor, kosmochlor–augite, olivine, albite, orthoclase, quartz, cohenite, nickelphosphide, altaite, troilite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, daubreelite, djerfisherite, and native Cu. Czochralskiite forms xenomorphic, usually oval grains and amoeboid aggregates, between 0.1 and 0.5 mm in size. It is colourless and transparent, with white streak and vitreous lustre; it shows no fluorescence, it is biaxial (+): α = 1.608(2), β = 1.611(2), γ = 1.616(2); α = a , β = b , γ = c ; 2 V (meas.) = 70° (10), 2 V (calc.) = 76°; the dispersion is very weak; Mohs’ hardness is 4–5; the fracture is irregular, conchoidal, and no cleavage was observed. The mean of twelve electron-microprobe analyses is (wt%): P 2 O 5 46.28, CaO 27.59, Na 2 O 20.04, MgO 6.21, FeO 0.32, MnO 0.16, K 2 O 0.09, total 100.69, leading to the empirical formula Na 3.97 Ca 3.02 Mg 0.95 Mn 2+ 0.01 K 0.01 Fe 2+ 0.03 (P 4.00 O 16 ). The calculated density based on the empirical formula and the single-crystal structural data is 3.148 g · cm −3 . The structure of czochralskiite [ Pnma, a = 17.9230(2), b = 10.7280(2), c = 6.7794(1) A, V = 1303.53(3)A 3 , Z = 4] is of the glaserite-type and related to that of buchwaldite and brianite. The strongest diffraction lines of the calculated czochralskiite powder diffraction pattern are [ d hkl (I )]: 3.802(48), 3.728(31), 2.726(100), 2.679(63), 2.602(83), 1.901 (44). The Raman spectrum shows the following characteristic bands (cm −1 , strong bands underlined): 1119, 1167, 1053, 1039, 1022, 1011, 986, 974, 966, 606, 585, 578 and 441. The Raman data show the absence of H 2 O and CO 2 . Czochralskiite is interpreted as a primary phosphate, which crystallized together with graphite and other phosphates inside the nodules. The mineral name honours Jan Czochralski (1885–1953), Polish chemist, crystallographer and metallurgist.

Uwagi do komentarza prof. Michała Kokowskiego o badaniach życiorysu Jana Czochralskiego

Remarks on the critical comments regarding the contents of the paper published after the presentation delivered by the biographer of Prof. Jan Czochralski. Unfortunately, Prof. Kokowski used an incorrect historical approach to such a short paper. The remarks are presented in four main points.

Uwagi do komentarza dr. Pawła E. Tomaszewskiego na temat badań życiorysu Jana Czochralskiego (replika)

The author replies to the text entitled “Remarks to the comment by Prof. Michal Kokowski on the research of Jan Czochralski’s biography” by Dr. Paweł E. Tomaszewski (2015), highlighting the key contentious issues, including the need to rely systematically on historical sources and the criticism thereof.

Jan Czochralski: Brief sketch of his life and achievements

On the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the death and the approaching centenary of the discovery of the Czochralski method a brief sketch of biography and achievements of Professor Jan Czochralski is presented. Biography and scientific achievements of Jan Czochralski are associated with Kcynia hometown, and to his stay in Berlin, Frankfurt and Warsaw.

The historical development of the Czochralski method

The Czochralski technique is currently the most developed method for growing bulk single crystals. The high technical level and degree of process automation make this technique the method of choice for growing and producing high-quality bulk single crystals, such as silicon, a variety of oxides, fluorides and multielement compounds. The historical development and spread of this method is shown from the time of its invention by Jan Czochralski in 1916 until the early 1970s when key modifications were made.

Czochralski-Grown Silicon Crystals for Microelectronics

In the era of semiconductor electronics, monocrystalline silicon remains a basic and widely used material [1 4]. It will probably continue to dominate in the world of electronics for many years to come. The rst material in history, though, on the basis of which the invention of a transistor was made (1948) was germanium (Ge). In order to produce a germanium single crystal, the molten germanium was held in a graphite crucible, and the crystal grew from a seed initially immersed in the liquid and later slowly pulled upwards. This method of crystallization was described in 1916 by Jan Czochralski, a scientist and inventor (for his life and scienti c achievements, see [5]). During the rst years after invention, Czochralski focused his studies on determination of the rate of metal crystallization. In later investigations, he proved that materials produced using this method are single crystals. They were not single crystals in today understanding, though, they were threads of such metals as zinc, tin and lead. At the time there was no need whatsoever for monocrystaline materials, as all materials industrially exploited at that time were polycrystalline. Properties were studied such as textures, martensitic structures; recrystallization, mostly in order to improve the mechanical properties. Returning to the subject of this article, it must be pointed out that despite technological progress and development in the examination of semiconductor devices, the Czochralski crystallization method applied to semiconductor materials, in particular to silicon, remained essentially the same since the 1950s. It is commonly called the Czochralski method (for a detailed description of the method see, e.g. [6 8]). On the following pages, the characteristics of the method, contributing to its success are discussed, taking into consideration the mechanisms of crystallization and technological progress observed in the last decades. The discussion is focused on crystallization of silicon, a material which became irreplaceable in electronics and microelectronics. At the present time, silicon crystals are produced in tens of thousands of tons, annually. The broad use of silicon is due to both, its physical and technological characteristics as well as availability of resources (the primary resource of silicon is SiO2). Silicon has a unique characteristics of forming, on its surface, an ultrathin passivating oxide lm. Thermal conductivity of silicon (140 163 W/(mK)) is higher in comparison to other semiconductors (GaAs 46 55 W/(mK), SiC 16 55 W/(mK)). This property is of particular signi cance as it leads to (advantageous) heat dissipation at semiconductor junctions. Silicon became a leading material in electronics due to its energy gap (1.1 eV at 300 K) which guarantees the work of semiconductor devices at high temperatures.