IVth Century Research Articles

Cercetări arheologice preventive în orașul medieval Târgoviște – Strada Calea Domnească nr. 192 / Preventive excavations in the medieval town of Târgoviște – 192 Calea Domnească St.

Towards the end of 2020, across the street from what is today Princely Court Openair Museum, the formally Princely Court of Târgoviște, as part of a rescue archaeological research project, on a relatively small surface, several medieval features were discovered. These structures unveiled several historical sequences from the timeframe of XVth– XVIIIth century. The oldest objects, consisting of a few ceramic fragments, indicate the existence of dwellings from the La Tène period and from the IIIrd– IVth centuries, somewhere in the area. Artifacts and features dated to the XVth– XVIth centuries documented the existence of a craftsman’s workshop in the same area. The most important discovery, however, is a necropolis (18 features), partially captured in the surveyed area, previously untraceable in terms of documentary information. The same chronostratigraphic context revealed a sidewalk pavement and a collapsed building, probably a bell tower. These discoveries suggest the existence of an ecclesiastical complex, dated in the second half of the XVIth century, but whose existence, according to some clues, seems to have been rather short. The first‑hand observations during the excavation on the youth of many of those buried were also confirmed by anthropological research. Thus, the interdisciplinary research corroborated information from contemporary documents, about Wallachia and implicitly Târgoviște, between the end of the XVIth and the first three decades of the XVIIth century, a series of military events took place whose negative effect was enhanced by natural calamities, translated into famine and disease. The necropolis and the medieval structures discovered at Strada Calea Domnească nr. 192, on a surface of about 70 square meters, are yet another layer from the complex chronostratigraphy of the city and, at the same time, proves, on one side, still the remarkable archaeological potential of Târgoviște, and on another, that research of its past entered in another stage.

Religious Inscriptions from Southern Arabia

Ancient religions and worship still constitute a fertile field for study and research, and various historical sources are still full of materials that can be studied with a serious inductive method. Since we have inscriptions in Musnad script from the IVth century AD indicating the emergence of a monotheistic religious pattern in southern Arabia, the present research aims to shed light on these inscriptions and what they recorded about this monotheistic belief as it was expressed in the worship of a god known as Rah. man.

Chronological Problems of the Adana Taşköprü

One of the most important settlements of Cilicia, which is an important connection point between East and West, is Adana. The international road route, which reaches Tarsus and then Adana via Gülek, turns east from here. Located on this route, Taşköprü (= Stone Bridge) provides a connection over the Sarus river. Although the arches of the bridge, which consists of twenty-one spans together with the discharging arches, vary in form, the architectural style generally exhibits Roman features. The bridge, which is known to have been repaired many times after the first construction, contains arches from different periods as well as early period remains. Although it is generally accepted that its construction was carried out in the Roman Period, it is controversial when exactly it should be dated to and which Imperial period. Some researchers associate the bridge with the historical context and date it to the Hadrianic Period. On the other hand, a group of researchers think that the bridge was built in the IVth century A.D., based on the name of the Architect Auxentios mentioned in the inscription. The aim of the study is to make a new proposal about when Taşköprü was built. Considering the importance of the road it connects and the political process, it turns out that both dates suggested for the structure are too late. In addition, the discharging arches on the bridge piers allow for a more accurate dating of the structure. In short, considering the architectural features and the political process, it becomes possible to determine the construction date of the bridge and to make a new proposal.

L’incarnation du verbe de Dieu entre niceisme et arianisme au IVe siècle

The Incarnation of the Word of God between Niceism and Arianism in the IVth century. The incarnation of the Word is the main theme debated by St. Athanasius throughout his theological and dogmatic works. First, incarnation theology has an anti-pagan connotation, as pagans derided Christians’ faith in the incarnation of the divine Logos, and, on the other hand, the Alexandrian bishop developed the theme of the incarnation against the Arians who denied the divinity of the Son and promoted a “creationist” doctrine of Christ. Between niceism and arianism, the theology of the incarnation knew several forms of theological expression, starting from the Arians, followers of Arius, to the neo-Arians, reinvented by Aetius and Eunomius, passing through the theology of the Homeans, who claimed the resemblance of the Son to the Father, to it culminated in the Homoiousians, those who came closest to the dogma of the Nicene Creed and who would finally embrace Niceism. The Cappadocians use in their theology of the incarnation the intuitions and arguments of Athanasius to overcome any other doctrine that would oppose or contradict the Niceno homoousian dogma, the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, namely, the Son is God like Father. Keywords: incarnation, Trinity, dogma, homeism, homoousianism, Arianism, niceism, Athanasius, council, ousia, theology, heresy, orthodoxy, Logos, Son, Father.

Black-glazed pottery of Olbian suburban estates (excavations of 2003-2017 years)

Black-glazed pottery takes a prominent place among many categories of archaeological material from Olbian suburban estates and settlements.
 Utensils from the estates Shiroka Balka (Broad Hollow) 6 (οικος) and Shiroka Balka (Broad Hollow) 7 (χωριον) are presented in various forms and types: for drinking wine (kantharos, kylix, cup-skyphos), dining (bowls, saltcellar bowls, saucers, plates), cosmetic (askos, lekanis) and lamps date back to the end of the VIth – IVth centuries B.C. We would like to note that the complex of black-glazed ceramics from the chorion in composition and duration of existence is slightly different from the findings of homestead (οικος).
 Of particular interest is a complex of black-glazed pottery excavated on the homestead (οικος), which is represented by whole forms, mainly from the family burial site (35 copies). The earliest utensils – kylix by analogy with the materials of Athenian Agora are represented by utensils of the late VIth – Vth centuries B.C.
 Among the black-glazed utensils, which were excavated on the suburban estates, the Attic ones, typical for ancient cities and settlements not only of ancient Greece, but also of the whole Black Sea coast, prevail.
 The analysis of the Attic black-glazed pottery complex gave an opportunity to clarify the chronology of the existence of not only the Shiroka Balka (Broad Hollow) 6 / homestead (οικος) and Shiroka Balka (Broad Hollow) 7 chorionic villus sampling (χωριον) estates, but also of the whole pottery complex, in particular which was previously impossible to date in more detail.

Mensa Pontiorum. Una galleria familiare e il suo corredo epigrafico ad Aquas Caesaris (Numidia)

In studying the dedications to Mars Augustus in Africa Proconsularis and Numidia, a small group of inscriptions of Pontii attracted my attention for the wide chronological period of reference and for the peculiar character of some texts; not last, the alternation between pagan and christian features seemed to me worthy of interest. In the paper, after the presentation and discussion of each document, some overall considerations are put forward on this group of inscriptions, which represents an interesting mark of the change in the epigraphic landscape in a necropolis of central-eastern Numidia between the IIIrd and IVth centuries AD.

LIVING DANUBE LIMES – SPAȚIUL CONSTRUIT CA INSTRUMENT PENTRU RETRĂIREA ISTORIEI

The theme of exploring the built space as tool for living history is part of the project that UAUIM is involved in as partner: “Living Danube Limes - Valorising cultural heritage and fostering sustainable tourism by LIVING the common heritage on the DANUBE LIMES as basis for a Cultural Route”, from the Danube Transnational Programme. The project proposes a contemporary experience on the Roman historical frontier along Danube, that contains, on the Romanian territory, a large number of archaeological sites, many of them still not explored or inaccessible. The Danube Limes could become a new Cultural Route in Europe, in a larger network of frontier systems, from Hadrian’s Wall in Great Britain, till the Northern parts of Africa and the Near East. The Danube Limes represents paradoxically, in the same time, a strong territorial limit, but also an important connection element for Europe. The first part of the research discloses the relationship at a territorial level, at different scales, between the historical sites and natural and anthropic features, in order to configure the future Cultural Route in Romania. A fully reconstructed Roman boat from the IVth century will sail along Danube till the Black Sea. Along the route, several areas and archaeological sites were identified in order to host projects, architectural, urban and territorial interventions as basis for living history scenarios. From iconic urban and architectural interventions, next to the archaeological sites, to new harbours, to the Wine Road, thermal settlements, or in the end, the final point of exile, where the Danube reaches the Black Sea, the projects developed by the Department of Architectural Synthesis, propose living history steps through functions and built spaces that reconstruct scenarios from the Roman life. The contemporary built space enhances the discovery and revival of history and becomes a tool for the Living History concept.

À propos d’une récente édition princeps

A critical review of the editio princeps of the Liber Timothei episcopi de Pascha recently published by Pierre Chambert-Protat and Camille Gerzaguet in the coll. Sources chrétiennes. The article questions the editors’ thesis, at length developed in the Introduction, that the text is only the Latin translation, also known by Gregorius of Elvira and St. Augustine, of a Greek treatise apparently due to one Timothy, bishop of Cybistra in Cappadocia during the first half of the IVth century (the translation would be a little later: the original and the version as well ought to be situated around the time of Nicaea, which applied to fixing the Easter date). It tries to show that this thesis, although not implausible, is not however as strong as its promoters imagine, and that several of their arguments are to be rejected or at least to be qualified. This discussion, which forms the main part of the article, is supplemented by two lists of proposed corrections: the first deals with the Latin text and the second, in an appendix, with its French translation.

L'abitato della piena età del Ferro di Pian di Gallo di Frontone (PU): il caso delle fornaci per ceramica e laterizi

In the locality of Pian di Gallo, the excavation have brought to light a settlement, dating between the VIIth and the IVth centuries BC. Of particular interest is an area, peripheral to the built-up area, with numerous furnaces of different types.

Dionisio I, i Celti e il sacco di Roma. Alcune riflessioni sulla cronologia e sulla strategia delle operazioni militari siracusane tra l’Elleporo e Pyrgi

The exact chronology of Dionysius I’s campaigns in the ’80s of the IVth century B.C. is still in question. The sources relate Dionysius’ capture of Rhegion (Diodorus, Polybius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus) and the treaty with the Gauls (Justin) to the sack of Rome by the Senones: to make all these accounts converge, we should date the fall of the Urbs in late July 387 B.C. The coincidence of the Gallic invasion and the siege of Rhegion suggests us that there may have been a remote planning of the Syracusan approach with the Celts; according to the deeds of Dionysius I’s in the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian seas and the chronology of Philistus’ mythological narrative, Syracuse’s interest with the Gauls may have been developed in the ’90s. Such a scenario would allow us to suppose that the Syracusan court played a role in the Celtic migratory phaenomenon before the sack of Rome with an anti-Etrurian and anti-Roman aim. By the end of the ’80s, the absence of Philistus from the court

Piezas discoidales recortadas en cerámica: perspectiva desde un depósito íbero de Iliberri (Granada)

In this paper we present some pieces considered insignificant by their formal features: fragments of vascular ceramics cut from which their various functionalities are analysed. For this reason we have focused on a specific find, the Iberian votive deposit of Iliberri dated in the ivth century bc. We have studied these pieces, evaluating them within their archaeological context in order to try to understand the relationship between the functionality of these objects, their analogy and the parallels with other contextual studies. With that in mind, we have selected the most significant cases, trying to determine, on the one hand, the different variants of shapes on which the discoidal pieces have been cut and, on the other, trying to clarify their use.The analysis and contrast of the context that we present, corresponding to the Granada discovery in the Zacatin Street, and other similar archaeological contexts that we have been able to identify in the archaeological bibliography, allow us to affirm that in order to arrive at a correct interpretation of these pieces it is necessary to evaluate them within contextual, iconographic and technological analyses.

Una excepcional lucerna de bronce con decoración de máscara teatral de Complutum (Alcalá de Henares)

We present an exceptional bronze plastic lucerne. The archaeological context from the piece corresponds to a remarkable domus of the Roman city of Complutum that has been dated to the ist century ad; however, it has been observed that several of its rooms had been reused for metallurgical production from the iiird century ad onwards. The analysis of the piece has allowed us to define it as a good quality leaded bronze plastic lucerna that has the representation of a theatrical mask, specifically of the ‘ready slave’ of the New Comedy, whose image is traced in other Roman productions. Through the study of this object, the difficulties of the archaeological discipline in establishing universally recognised typologies for bronze skylights are confirmed; however, it is concluded that it is possible to detect their typological link with types described for the Bay of Naples workshops. It is an exceptional object with few parallels documented in the Roman world. Its manufacture seems to correspond to a moment located throughout the ist century or the beginning of the iind century ad; in spite of this, its use must have continued until near the end of the ivth century ad. Everything seems to indicate this is a probable italic production.

BRONZE CROSS-SHAPED PLAQUES AS A CHRONOLOGY INDICATOR OF SKYTHIAN KURGANS OF THE NORTH PONTIC REGION OF THE SECOND — THIRD QUARTER OF THE 4th CENTURY BC

In the Scythian kurgans of the IVth century BC in the Northern Black Sea region, 31 bronze cruciform plaques were found. Such plaques are found mainly in male graves and much less often in female ones. These plaques were used as quiver buckles and for attaching the quiver to the belt. The main zone of concentration of cross-shaped plaques finds covers is the territory of the Lower Dnieper region, directly to the Dnieper. Apparently, this indicates that they were made in this region, where their place of manufacture could be only Kamenskoe hillfort, which was the center of metallurgy and metalworking in Steppe Scythia. From here they diverged south-east to Sivash within the present-day Kherson region, and much further north to the forest-steppe within the present-day right-bank Cherkasy and left-bank Kiev regions. Cross-shaped plaques are indicators of the advance of the steppe Scythians from the Lower Dnieper region to the north in the Ukrainian forest-steppe, to the west as far as the Lower Danube and very close to the south-east to Sivash. The latter direction, apparently, corresponds to migrations to winter pastures. More than half of all finds of cross-shaped plaques reliably date from within the second to third quarters of the IVth century BC, which gives every reason to assume the same dating for the complexes, where there are no own dating materials. In general, such bronze cross-shaped plaques are a reliable chronological indicator Scythian burials of the Northern Black Sea region of the second — third quarter of the IVth century BC, and also partly ethnic.

ОСНОВНІ ВІДОМОСТІ ПРО ДАВНЬОЕЛЛІНСЬКІ ФІМІАТЕРІЇ ТА ЇХ ПРИЗНАЧЕННЯ

The paper looks at the ancient Greek thymiateria and aims at finding data in literary, epigraphic and visual sources that would cast light on the use of thymiateria in private and public rituals of the VIІ th century BC – IVth century AD. Systematic collection of data and its comparative historical analysis were in the core of the methodology. Among the main methods of analysing the collected sources, one should mention empirical, analytical, structural-typological and iconographical methods. A thymiaterion (an incense burner) is firstly mentioned in the Vth century BC in Herodotus’ Historia. In centuries to come, the panhellenic name of thymiaterion would dominate and enter to Roman and Germanic languages. This device was used solely with fire, charcoal or heated pebbles to burn aromatic compounds, incense and aromatic plants and flowers in particular. Thymiateria didn’t have any fixed shapes or sizes. In narrative sources, they were also named bomiskos, libanotis (libanotris), escharis, tripodiskos etc. In this paper, I examine the basic constructive elements of thymiateria. As visual sources and lyric poetry suggest, they were used in the archaic period. The earliest instance of the use of thymiateria in the ritual practice date late to the VIth century BC in the Phanagoria of the Bosporus. The thymiateria is depicted on mostly in mythological scenes on the Athenian red-figure pottery late of the Vth – IVth centuries BC found in Panticapaeum and in the surrounding area. The Greek iconography of mythological scenes on the vases was clear for the locals. The majority of visual, numismatics and epigraphic sources that reveal the use of thymiateria on the Bosporus are dating to the IVth–ІІth centuries BC, when they were spread in Hellenistic Greece and, especially in sanctuaries of Delos. Although aroma was an essential part of thymiateria culture, only Orphic Hymns cast light on the use of particular incenses (in pure form or in compound) for each gods or heroes. One important question persists: which aromas were burnt in thymiateria and from which countries were they brought to Greece? From literary sources, we know that plant-based aromas, namely incense and myrrh were brought from South Arabia and Syria. Thymiateria were used during rituals in sanctuaries and temples, during religious processions, funerals, symposiums and wedding that were accompanied by aromatic smoke. The present essay should be regarded as a starting point for the further in-depth study of thymiateria from the Northern Black sea region and Olbia in particular.

Le procès et l’exécution de Socrate chez trois auteurs de l’époque impériale

Although the trial of Socrates happened in the IVth century BC, the impression of the injustice that the great philosopher had suffered remained alive during the early centuries of our era. In this article, we examine how the trial and execution of Socrates through the eyes of three authors of the imperial era, specifically Plutarch, Dion Chrysostome and Lucien. Each author reacts to Socrates’ trial and execution according to his own style and temperament. Plutarch testifies to the hatred of the Athenians against Anytos, Meletos and Lycon and their tragic end, while Dion informs us of the poor reputation that the Athenians retain because of the condemnation of Socrates since then and until the imperial era. Finally, Lucien exploits the rich material provided by the end of the great philosopher in many ways. However, all three agree that it was an unjust death and a shameful condemnation, as well as an event that casts a shadow over the ideal image that we have of Athenian democracy in the classical era.

Pensamiento trinitario y metafísica platonista en el De Generatione Divini Verbi de Mario Victorino

Mario Victorino Africano (n. ca. 300- m. 382 A.D.) representa elocuentemente el encuentro entre el cristianismo y el pensamiento platonista en el ambiente latino del siglo IV. En una de la obras de Victorino, el De Generatione Divini Verbi Victorino utiliza un aparato filosófico plotiniano para acercarse mejor a la teología cristiana en función de la solución de este problema trinitario: ¿Cómo genera algo el Uno sin dejar de ser Uno? El objetivo de este texto es analizar la convivencia del pensamiento teológico trinitario con la metafísica platonista plotiniana en el De Generatione Divini Verbi en función de dos temas principales: 1) los modos de ser, y 2) la explicación de la vida del Uno más allá de la substancia. Primero 1) daremos una breve semblanza de la vida de Mario Victorino, 2) después, analizaremos por qué el problema cristológico arriano necesita de una metafísica madura y sistemática para resolverse, 3) luego, repasaremos las soluciones que da Victorino en función del problema cristológico enfocándonos en los dos ejes mencionados, y 4) finalmente veremos las conclusiones de esta interacción entre teología y filosofía platonista mencionando la novedades que Victorino aporta a la comprensión de la metafísica platonista plotiniana.

Animal remains from Iron Age and Roman Odemira, Portugal

Animal remains from excavations of the Iron Age II (end IVth century - early IIIrd century BC) and Roman Republican (Ist century BC) part of a defensive ditch of Odemira hillfort in SW Portugal are described. Most derive from domesticated animals like cattle, goats and pigs, and a hunted animal, red deer. There are two substantial changes between Iron Age and Roman times. The first is a huge increase in the frequency of red deer. This may reflect a rise in the status of the inhabitants. The second is a change in the age-at-slaughter of the cattle: most Iron Age cattle were slaughtered quite young while those in Roman times were not slaughtered until old. This probably reflects a change in the management strategy of cattle. In the Iron Age the emphasis in cattle production was for meat while the Romans kept cattle more for their power and milk. Other animals present include birds, dog, fox, horse, rabbit, and in the Roman period, some marine shells.

Breath analysis for colorectal cancer screening.

The soothsayer has featured in history since the dawn of time with deities and oracles being consulted as a primitive reaction to human disease. The smell emanating from sick people has always been taken as a warning of dire consequences. In Greek and Roman mythology, a snow-white bird, named dhalion or caladrius, was used to forecast the prognosis, as the bird refused to look at an ill patient who would not recover1. In the IVth century BC Hippocrates of Cos described the fetor hepaticus to characterize liver insufficiency2. More recently, sniffer dogs have been shown to be able to discriminate patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) from healthy individuals thanks to their extraordinary sense of smell3. In 1971 Nobel laureate Linus Pauling used gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify volatile molecules in the vapour arising from urine which can characterize a subject's health status4. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Geneza herezji wczesnochrześcijańskich w ujęciu Filastriusza z Brescii

The original Latin catalogue of heresies, produced by Saint Philastrius of Brescia in the second half of IVth century, encompasses several observations re­garding the source of early Christian heterodox movements. These views are dis­persed and interwoven into the analysis of particular heresies, and as such do not constitute an integral and standalone teaching on the nature of unorthodoxy and its genesis. The present work attempts at enucleating this standpoint and summari­sing it in a comprehensive and complementary manner. Regarding the issue of the foundation of heresy, Philastrius proposed his own point of view based on the following threefold argumentation: the theological (Satan is the father of all the world’s heterodoxy – comprehended as a lapse form God’s truth), the moral (heresies rise due to one’s pride), and historical and cul­tural (errors in early Christian doctrine derive from the Judaic sects or else from the counterfactual views of the ancient Greek philosophers). Philastrius’ perspective refers back to an extensive and modestly younger work Panarion by Epiphanius of Salamis, in which the topic of Jewish-deriving deviations from the doctrine was treated even more at length. The Bishop of Brescia’s index has been the inspiration for the later catalogues of unorthodoxy by St. Augustine (narrow in the topic of Judaic origins of heretical movements and rather focused on influences from the ancient philosophical schools) and Isidore of Seville (intermingling both sources of early heretical movements – i.e. Judaic and Greek – withholding the determination which of them has in fact more influ­enced the uprising of heterodoxy and the doctrine itself).

Le décret d’Athènes sur la kréanomia des Petites Panathénées : un modèle politique pour la distribution des viandes entre les dèmes attiques

After a large number of editions and commentaries since its discovery in 1842, this most celebrated “ sacred law” of the Lycurgan Era (ca. 330 BC) has now taken its place -with the fragment published in 1959 -in the 2nd fasc., provided by Stephen Lambert, of the new corpus of the Athenian Leges et decreta (IG II3 1, 447). Hovewer, the text may still be improved on two points of major importance for a better understanting of the clauses related to the twofold kreanomia. This paper aims to show first that the inscription does not mention, as usually admitted on the basis of a certainly mistaken restoration, two preliminary sacrifices (tas duo [ thusias]), but the sacrifice of the two female sheeps or ewe (tas duo [arnas]), the one to be immolated at the entrance into Akropolis, the other most probably in the area of the “ Old Temple” (= Erechtheion), and both to be divided thereafter in a regular number of collective portions between the authorities of the city and other officials sharing to the procession. The main object of the decree of the Demos was, however, more related to the current affairs : the reorganization of the great sacrifice for Athena Polias in buying a number of cows as high as possible with a specific amount of money provided by the leasing of a new piece of land called He Nea (identified today with some confidence to a portion at least of the Oropian territory). But, in this case too, the modern scholars have all been deceived by an unsound restoration of the sentence concerning the distribution of meat between the demes of the city-state. Instead of introducing here, indeed, the idea that the sharing of each deme to the meats was conditioned by the number of demesmen participating to the procession (kata [ tous pempon] tas), the obvious supplement must be kata [ tous bouleu] tas), as proposed long ago, with great caution, by one of the first editors, J. L. Ussing, but always ignored or neglected since : the distribution organized in Kerameikos is to be made to the demes according to the number of the councillors that each of them provides (to the boule of the Five Hundred). So, this inscription gives us a unique instance of transfer of a democratic rule from the political life into the religious sphere. Besides, the date of the decree having been more precisely fixed at the year 335/ 4, it is suggested that the last lines of the inscription may conserve the mention of a sacred embassy (theoria), which was sent by the Demos to the new king of Macedonia, in order to inform him on the reorganization of Panathenaia hekatomb, since Alexander was the donor of Oropos territory to Athens after Thebes’s destruction (autumn 335). Any way, it is known from Arrian’s narrative that the victor of a Persian army at River Granicus (spring 334) had consecrated 300 panopliai to Athena Polias on the Acropolis of Athens. In an appendix to the paper, it is shown that the undertanding of the contemporary dossier formed by three decrees in honour of Phyleus of Oinoe and his acolytes (now IG II3 1, 327) has beeen greatly improved by the restoration – due first to A. P. Matthaiou, accepted next by S. Lambert – of the title grammateus, instead of hieropoios, for the elective office held by this magistrate, who was thus the Secretary of the Council and the People (cf. Arist. A. P. LIV 4) in the year 336/ 5. Nevertheless, the opinion of the last editor concerning the number and the status of Phyleus’ demesmen jointly honoured with him cannot possibly be correct : they are decidedly not collaborators of him as associated secretaries (sun[ grammateis]), but most probably colleagues of the same deme within the Council (sun[ archontes dèmotai] : being three -and not just two as thought untill now -they constitued with him the normal delegation from Oinoe at the Boule (the number 4 is indeed the constant bouleutic quota from this deme in the IVth century). And the most eventfull year 335 might easily provide an plausible explanation to the exceptional honour granted to this quatuor of Oinoe.