Isthmus Of Kra Research Articles

Thailand’s Kra Canal: economic feasibility and expert perspectives on its complexity

PurposeAsia is one of the most important economic regions of the world. The Kra Canal is considered as a potential maritime transportation node in global trade. Indeed, for centuries, a canal across the Kra isthmus in Thailand has been proposed as holding significant economic and logistical benefits through goods transfer and exchange, yet it remains unconstructed. Common tools in feasibility studies are PESTELE and SWOT analyses, which incorporate cost-benefit and value analyses. The purpose of this paper is to assess the feasibility of the Kra Canal using approaches to complement existing studies.Design/methodology/approachIn this paper, we combine quantitative and qualitative methodologies to holistically assess the feasibility of the Kra Canal. Quantitatively, we consider the economic feasibility of the canal using Net Present Value to evaluate its potential financial benefits. Qualitatively, we then present expert perspectives gathered from in-depth interviews with field experts (n = 20) to identify key aspects of complexity related to the economic, political and overall feasibility of the canal.FindingsWe discuss the possibility of the canal’s construction and describe possible future impacts the canal could have on the region geopolitically, for example, in its role in China’s One Belt One Road initiative and also in how Singapore and Tanjung Pelapas in Malaysia might react. Ultimately, we find significant complexities with the Kra Canal project, ones which anyone contemplating its construction would, we argue, be wise to consider.Originality/valueThis paper combined qualitative and quantitative methods to explore the economic, political and overall feasibility of the Kra Canal. The methodologies and findings supplement past relevant studies and help evaluate the economic, political and overall feasibility of the Kra Canal’s investment project. This is particularly timely considering its potential ability as a route given recent geopolitical events and, for example, as part of China’s Belt and Road initiative and its ability to reduce carbon and sulphur emissions.

The Malacca dilemma of the Raj: the Indian Uprising of 1857, the Second Opium War, and the British proposal of a Kra passage

Abstract In the late 1850s and early 1860s, the idea of building a passage through the Isthmus of Kra in the Malay Peninsula was hotly debated amongst British officials, merchants, and investors. This study finds that the British East India Company's rule over the Straits of Malacca had been a dilemma for itself and British merchants in China. The Second Opium War and the Indian Revolt of 1857 exacerbated the dilemma and pushed some British policymakers and investors to seek an alternative route between India and China. The proposal of the Kra passage was the response and solution to the Malacca dilemma. In historicising the Kra passage proposal and putting it in the context of the British empire's simultaneous crises in Asia in the mid-nineteenth century, the case of the proposed Kra passage reveals the complex relations between different actors within the British empire and the challenges of integrating multiple imperial interests into a British world system

Another new species of karst-associated pitviper (Serpentes, Viperidae: Trimeresurus) from the Isthmus of Kra, Peninsular Thailand

We describe a new species of karst-dwelling pitviper from Chumphon Province of Peninsular Thailand, in the Isthmus of Kra, based on morphological and molecular data (2427 bp from cyt b, ND4 and 16S rRNA mitochondrial DNA genes). Morphologically, Trimeresurus kraensis sp. nov. is distinguished from other congeners by the following combination of morphological characters: a dark/bottle-green dorsum with reddish-brown or purple crossbands; pale green venter lacking dark dots; stripes present on the lateral sides of the ventrals; internasals generally in contact; one large supraocular scale on each side of the head; iris pale copper; tail brown with dark purplish-brown crossbars; dorsal scales in 21–21–15 rows; ventral scales 167 in a single male, 169–171 in females; subcaudal scales 62 in a single male, 52–54 in females, all paired. White vertebral spots present in males, located on approximately every two or four dorsal scales; dark brown spots forming discontinuous pattern present on 1–3 lateral dorsal scale rows; males with reddish-brown postocular stripe with jagged edges. The new species differs from the morphologically similar species Trimeresurus venustus s. str. by a notable divergence in cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA gene sequences (p = 5.9%).

The natural and human-mediated expansion of a human-commensal lizard into the fringes of Southeast Asia

BackgroundHuman-commensal species often display deep ancestral genetic structure within their native range and founder-effects and/or evidence of multiple introductions and admixture in newly established areas. We investigated the phylogeography of Eutropis multifasciata, an abundant human-commensal scincid lizard that occurs across Southeast Asia, to determine the extent of its native range and to assess the sources and signatures of human introduction outside of the native range. We sequenced over 350 samples of E. multifasciata for the mitochondrial ND2 gene and reanalyzed a previous RADseq population genetic dataset in a phylogenetic framework.ResultsNuclear and mitochondrial trees are concordant and show that E. multifasciata has retained high levels of genetic structure across Southeast Asia despite being frequently moved by humans. Lineage boundaries in the native range roughly correspond to several major biogeographic barriers, including Wallace’s Line and the Isthmus of Kra. Islands at the outer fringe of the range show evidence of founder-effects and multiple introductions.ConclusionsMost of enormous range of E. multifasciata across Southeast Asia is native and it only displays signs of human-introduction or recent expansion along the eastern and northern fringe of its range. There were at least three events of human-introductions to Taiwan and offshore islands, and several oceanic islands in eastern Indonesia show a similar pattern. In Myanmar and Hainan, there is a founder-effect consistent with post-warming expansion after the last glacial maxima or human introduction.

The Pleistocene grassland-dominated mammal fauna from Tham Kra Duk (Nakhon Si Thammarat, Peninsular Thailand)

ABSTRACT Controversy exists as to whether the Pleistocene vegetation in northern Sundaland was dominated by lowland tropical grasslands or rainforests, due to limited palaeoecological evidence recorded from the region. We describe a new Pleistocene large mammal fauna from Tham Kra Duk, a cave in the Tham Phedan mountain, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province in Peninsular Thailand, with emphasis on its palaeoecological and palaeoenvironmental investigations using the stable isotope analysis of mammalian tooth enamel. The fossil site has yielded at least nine mammalian taxa almost comparable to late middle to latest Pleistocene faunas in the mainland, thus suggesting the same biogeographic mammal elements with a range extension south of the Kra Isthmus. The stable isotope results indicate that mixed woodland to grassland ecosystems were dominated by C4 vegetation in the area. This supports the assumption that the expansion of Pleistocene tropical savanna ecosystems might have held the key to facilitating the southward distribution range of grazing mammals such as gaurs and Himalayan gorals into the Thai-Malay Peninsula. The presence of the Tham Kra Duk fauna was probably linked to some major biogeographic events of Pleistocene hominin and mammal migration through the land-bridge peninsula into the islands of Southeast Asia during a period of glaciation.

Recent Progress in Taxonomic Studies, Biogeographic Analysis, and Revised Checklist of Reptiles in Indochina

The Indochinese Peninsula represents one of the key global biodiversity hotspots in Southeast Asia. The herpetofauna of Indochina (herein including Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand) currently (as by 10 August 2023) comprises 882 native and six invasive species of reptiles and is one of the richest in the world. About 40% of the Indochinese reptile species were discovered or recorded within the first two decades of the 21st century. We review the literature and our field data to assess all recent discoveries and taxonomic changes; we compile an annotated checklist of reptilian fauna of Indochina, including updated faunal lists for Vietnam and Thailand. Reptile species checklists for Laos and Cambodia are published for the first time. For each species we provide the following information: scientific name; recommended common name in English; information on type specimens; information on recognized subspecies; type locality; data on its distribution within Indochina and beyond; IUCN conservation status; taxonomic comments and the most important references. We review the distribution of each reptilian species across the 23 biogeographic subregions of Indochina, estimate the similarity among the regional faunas and evaluate their species richness and endemism. In total, we record 882 native reptile species belonging to three orders, 34 families and 163 genera; of them 408 species (46.3%) are endemic to Indochina. Comprising 512 known species, the reptilian fauna of Thailand is the richest (114 country endemics, 22.3%), followed by Vietnam with 496 species (157 endemics, 31.7%), Laos with 250 species (39 endemics, 15.6%), and Cambodia with 191 species (15 endemics, 7.9%). A cluster analysis of faunal similarity between the subregions revealed three major groupings, corresponding to the Sundaland fauna south of the Isthmus of Kra, the subtropical fauna of northeastern Indochina, and the tropical fauna of mainland Indochina. Within the latter grouping four clusters can be distinguished: (1) northern, central and southern Annamites, (2) western Indochinese subregions, (3) central-south Vietnam lowlands including the Bolaven Plateau and Cardamom Mountains, (4) and the depleted faunas of river deltas, coastal areas and offshore islands. We identify the Northern, Central and Southern Annamites, the Northwest Uplands of Vietnam, Laos and Thailand, Southern Tenasserim in Thailand as the major centers of reptilian diversity in Indochina. The highest number of Indochinese endemic reptilian species was recorded in Central-Southern Vietnam Lowlands, Northern Annamites, and Central Annamites. The analysis of reptilian distribution patterns suggests the presence of 20 clusters of species sharing similar distribution patterns across Indochina. Our results further underline the key role of Indochina as an important area for diversity and conservation of reptiles. Among 882 native species of Indochinese reptiles, 356 species (40.4%) are considered as Data Deficient (DD) or were Not Evaluated (NE) according to the IUCN Red List criteria, while 106 species (12.0%) were considered Vulnerable (VU), Endangered (EN) or Critically Endangered (CR), 17 species (1.9%) were considered to be Near Threatened (NT), and 403 species (45.7%) to be of the Least Concern (LC) status. Our work has implications for elaboration of further conservation efforts for Indochinese reptiles on regional and global levels, as well as for a better understanding of the biogeographic patterns of reptilian richness and endemism in Asia.

Evolutionary history and patterns of divergence in three tropical east Asian squirrels across the Isthmus of Kra

AbstractAimUnderstanding the biotic and abiotic mechanisms underlying the generation and maintenance of biogeographic transitions represent long‐standing topics in evolutionary biology. The Isthmus of Kra (IOK) divides Sundaland and Indochina and constitutes a poorly characterized terrestrial biogeographic transition. Here we looked at population genetic structure of three species that are distributed across the IOK to gain insights into the drivers that have shaped this transition and regional diversification patterns.LocationTropical east Asia: Sundaland and Indochina.TaxaCallosciurus caniceps, Tamiops mcclellandii, and Dremomys rufigenis‐ornatus species complex (Mammalia: Rodentia: Sciuridae).MethodsWe generated complete mitogenomes and sequences of 11 nuclear intron fragments from 61 and 67 museum specimen samples, respectively. We assessed population structure by constructing Maximum Likelihood mitogenome phylogenies (IQTREE2), and nuclear marker haplowebs and conspecificity matrices (HaplowebMaker and CoMa). We estimated divergence dates through Bayesian phylogenetic inference (BEAST2) and put these results in the context of climatic and geological history.ResultsHigh levels of mitochondrial and nuclear divergence were identified across the IOK in all three squirrels. Lineage turnover was consistent with the two major mammal species distribution transitions near the Kangar‐Pattani Line and at the juncture between the Thai‐Malay peninsula and the mainland. Divergence of mitochondrial lineages across Kra was estimated in the late Pliocene/ early Pleistocene for all three taxa. Older Miocene/Pliocene divergences were estimated within Indochina in D. rufigenis‐ornatus and T. mcclellandii, which were paraphyletic.Main ConclusionsSundaic and Indochinese populations have possibly diverged in allopatric habitat refugia in or around mountains during periods of increased aridity and evergreen forest contraction. Ecological differences and/or topography might have influenced genetic differentiation during periods of rainforest expansion. Alternative hypotheses remain to be tested with more informative nuclear markers and additional geographic sampling.

The Thai species of the Polyrhachis (Myrmatopa) flavicornis Smith, 1857 species group, with description of a new species (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Formicinae).

The Polyrhachis (Myrmatopa) flavicornis species group in Thailand is reviewed. Four species are recognized, of which one species closely related to Polyrhachis constructor Smith, 1857 is described and illustrated as new to science based on the worker caste under the name Polyrhachis longipilosa sp. nov. The queens of P. flavicornis Smith, 1857 and P. constructor, and the males of P. flavicornis and P. varicolor Viehmeyer, 1916 are described. The new species is distributed in western Thailand in the area north of the Isthmus of Kra, while P. constructor is distributed in Malaysia (West Malaysia and Sabah), Indonesia, Singapore, southern and western Thailand. Polyrhachis piliventris Smith, 1857 and Polyrhachis elii Emery, 1900 are synonymized with P. constructor. A key to the Thai species of the Polyrhachis flavicornis species group is given. The type series of P. longipilosa was collected from the canopy of a dry evergreen forest.

Larval description of Theloderma albopunctatum (Liu & Hu, 1962) (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Northern Vietnam, with comparison between the North-Vietnamese and North-eastern Thai clades.

The mossy frogs of the genus Theloderma Tschudi comprise 28 described taxa (Sivongxay et al. 2016; Frost 2022), which are distributed from north-eastern India and Myanmar to southern China, across the peninsula of Indochina and Malaysia, to Indonesia (Poyarkov et al. 2015; Frost 2022). Theloderma albopunctatum is a small-sized taxon that is assigned to the T.-asperum species complex (Poyarkov et al. 2015, 2018; Sivongxay et al. 2016; Dever 2018). For long time, it has been believed to be a synonym of T. asperum. However, genetic analyses revealed that both taxa show significant differences. Currently, populations south of the Isthmus of Kra (southern Thailand, Malayan peninsular) are assigned to T. asperum, while populations north of it (southern China, northern and central Vietnam, adjacent Laos, south-eastern Cambodia) are assigned to T. albopunctatum. In addition, this species complex might contain further cryptic species (cf. Nguyen et al. 2015; Poyarkov et al. 2015) and according to Chunskul et al. (2021) four genetic groups do exist: group A comprises T. albopunctatum from southern and central Vietnam, Laos, central and north-eastern Thailand; group B is composed of populations from northern Vietnam and China; group C ranges from north-western Vietnam to northern Thailand and Myanmar; and group D is distributed in northern Vietnam (Thanh Hoa).

A new species of stream toad of the genus Ansonia Stoliczka, 1870 (Anura: Bufonidae) from Nakhon Si Thammarat Range in southern Thailand.

An integrative taxonomic analysis confirmed the new species status of a recently discovered upland population of Ansonia from Thongsong, Thongsong District, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand from the sky island archipelago south of the Isthmus of Kra. Ansonia infernalis sp. nov. is a member of the Thai-Burmese clade within the more inclusive Thai-Malaya Peninsula clade of western and southern Thailand. It is separated from all other species of Ansonia by a unique combination of morphometric and discrete morphological and color pattern characteristics and is the sister species of a clade of eight other species found north of the Isthmus of Kra. Ansonia infernalis sp. nov. is the newest member of a long list of range-restricted endemics from the sky island archipelago of the Thai-Malay Peninsula and continues to underscore the unexplored nature of this region and its need for conservation.

INDIAN MERCHANTS IN ANCIENT SOUTHEAST ASIA: THE CASE OF ÓC EO – FUNAN

Being considered a trading polity, Funan was known to have established relationships with major regional economic centers and nations. At its height, Funan controlled a variety of valuable resources and dominated the Southeast Asian maritime trade network, which included many trading ports, raw materials production centers, as well as the Isthmus of Kra, the principal link in the East-West trade route. In this, Indians, notably traders and craftsmen, did not only limit their presence to trading with Funan, but had also permanently settled in the Lower Mekong Delta. They were involved in political life, propagating religion, enriching culture, and producing commodities. Indians’ contributions set the commodity standards for Funan’s economy, affecting arts and the current of ideas in Funan, as well as other Southeast Asian states. Together with internal factors, these external factors influenced the transformation of Funan into a regional power.

Out of Southeast Asia: A new species of thick-thumbed bat (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Glischropus) from Meghalaya, north-eastern India

Thick-thumbed bats of the genus Glischropus are currently composed of four recognized species from Southeast Asia, two of which were described in recent times. Among these species, G. aquilus is endemic to Sumatra, G. javanus is restricted to western Java, whereas G. bucephalus is widely distributed north to the Isthmus of Kra and G. tylopus is widespread south to this zoogeographic boundary. Two recently collected Glischropus specimens from Meghalaya state in north-eastern India extend the known distribution range of the genus westward into South Asia by ca. 1000 km. Morphological examination of these specimens and comparison with all known species in this genus revealed marked differences in colouration, dental characters and bacular traits. We therefore describe the Meghalaya specimens as a new species. The discovery of the new species from a forest patch adjacent to Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary from where another specialized bamboo-dwelling species (Eudiscopus denticulus) was reported recently also underscore the importance of the area from a conservation point of view.

Phylogenetic and multivariate analyses of Gekko smithii Gray, 1842 recover a new species from Peninsular Malaysia and support the resurrection of G. albomaculatus (Giebel, 1861) from Sumatra

AbstractAn integrative taxonomic analysis of Sundaic populations ofGekko smithiifrom the Thai-Malaya Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo recovered four deeply divergent mitochondrial lineages that are separated by major geographic barriers (mountains and seaways). Furthermore, they bear a number of concordant statistically significant differences in meristic and morphometric features, morphospatial separation in multivariate space, and discrete differences in color pattern.Gekko smithiisensu strictois restricted to southern Thailand south of the Isthmus of Kra and Peninsular Malaysia west of the Banjaran (mountain range) Titiwangsa, being that the type locality is on Penang Island, Penang.Gekko hulksp. nov.is a new species from extreme southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia east of the Banjaran Titiwangsa and five east coast islands—the type locality being Pulau (island) Tioman, Pahang. Gekko cf. albofasciolatus is tentatively used to include Bornean populations west of the Iran Mountains in Sabah and Sarawak which, in the absence of molecular data, cannot unequivocally be separated morphologically fromG. albofasciolatusfrom the type locality at Banjarmasin, Kalimantan, Indonesia east of the Iran Mountains. In the absence of molecular data,G. albomaculatusis resurrected to include mainland Sumatran, Nias Island, and Banyak Islands populations which, based on their morphology, cannot be separated from descriptions ofG. albomaculatusfrom the type locality of Bangka Island, 15 km off the southeast coast of mainland Sumatra. Further integrative analyses of all Sumatran and Bornean populations are currently underway as well as the enigmatic Wallacean populations from Sulawesi. Data are presented that strongly suggest all references toG. smithiifrom Java stem from a 151 year-old misidentification of a specimen ofG. geckoof unknown provenance. Additionally, there are no vouchered records ofG. smithiifrom Myanmar. The phylogeographic patterns of Sundaic populations of theG. smithiicomplex are concordant with those of a plethora of other Sundaic lineages.

Dynamic evolution of Mhc haplotypes in cynomolgus macaques of different geographic origins.

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) plays a key role in immune defense, and the Mhc genes of cynomolgus macaque display a high degree of polymorphism. Based on their geographic distribution, different populations of cynomolgus macaques are recognized. Here we present the characterization of the Mhc class I and II repertoire of a large pedigreed group of cynomolgus macaques originating from the mainland north of the isthmus of Kra (N = 42). Segregation analyses resulted in the definition of 81 unreported Mafa-A/B/DRB/DQ/DP haplotypes, which include 32 previously unknown DRB regions. In addition, we report 13 newly defined Mafa-A/B/DRB/DQ/DP haplotypes in a group of cynomolgus macaques originating from the mainland south of the isthmus of Kra/Maritime Southeast Asia (N = 16). A relatively high level of sharing of Mafa-A (51%) and Mafa-B (40%) lineage groups is observed between the populations native to the north and the south of isthmus of Kra. At the allelic level, however, the Mafa-A/B haplotypes seem to be characteristic of a population. An overall comparison of all currently known data revealed that each geographic population has its own specific combinations of Mhc class I and II haplotypes. This illustrates the dynamic evolution of the cynomolgus macaque Mhc region, which was most likely generated by recombination and maintained by selection due to the differential pathogenic pressures encountered in different geographic areas.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00251-021-01249-y.

Acanthosaura meridiona sp. nov. (Squamata: Agamidae), a new short-horned lizard from southern Thailand

A new short – horned lizard species of the genus Acanthosaura from southern Thailand, is described herein. The species was previously recognised as Acanthosaura crucigera and has been reported to present a wide distribution across mainland south-east Asia. The combination of modern morphological studies of Acanthosaura meridiona sp. nov. allows its separation from closely related species A. crucigera, on the basis of presenting more nuchal scales, more scales between diastema, more scales bordering rostral scales and more midline ventral scales. Mitochondrial DNA analysis also indicated a sister relationship between A. meridiona sp. nov. and A. crucigera with a 100 % probability according to Bayesian and maximum – likelihood analyses. The pairwise distance between A. meridiona sp. nov. and A. crucigera ranges from 9.9 – 11.1 %, while the distance between A. meridiona populations ranges from 0 – 0.9 %. This new discovery contributes to the redescription of the distribution of A. crucigera under Kra Isthmus and its replacement by A. meridiona sp. nov.

ADDITIONAL RECORDS AND PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS OF Fejervarya moodiei (Taylor, 1920) (ANURA: DICROGLOSSIDAE) FROM VIETNAM

Kurniwan et al. (2010) specified the distribution of F. cancrivora to the south of the Isthmus of Kra and a large area in the North of the Isthmus of Kra, including Vietnam, is the distribution range of F. moodiei, but the samples analyzed in that study did not include samples collected from Vietnam. Based on the results of morphological and genetic analyses on two mitochondrial gene fragments (16S and Cytb) of populations of Fejervarya moodiei and F. cacrivora, this study confirmed that the Northern Crab-eating Frog F. moodiei distributed in Vietnam. In addition, we recorded the distribution of this species in the mangrove areas of the Thai Binh and Thua Thien Hue provinces as well as Hai Phong city. Although the Fejervarya moodiei populations are widely distributed from the Philippines to Bangladesh, the genetic differences in the 16S and Cytb genes are insignificant (from 0.2 to 1.5% on 16S gene). Morphological data of specimens of F. moodiei from Vietnam and China are also provided.

Taxonomic and genetic assessment of captive White-Handed Gibbons (Hylobateslar) in Peninsular Malaysia with implications towards conservation translocation and reintroduction programmes.

Conservation translocation and reintroduction for the purpose of repopulating and reinforcing extirpated or depleted populations has been recognised as an important conservation tool, particularly for gibbon conservation in the immediate future. Feasibility assessments involving multiple factors, including taxonomic and genetic assessment of rescued and captive gibbons, are imperative prior to translocation and reintroduction programmes. In this study, we attempt to determine the subspecies and origin of captive Hylobateslar, White-handed gibbons, from Peninsular Malaysia to assist in future translocation and reintroduction programmes. A total of 12 captive and rescued H.lar samples were analysed using the control region segment of mitochondrial DNA. Sequence analyses and phylogenetic trees constructed using neighbour-joining, maximum likelihood, Bayesian inference, and network methods congruently differentiate all 12 captive individuals used in this study from other H.lar subspecies suggesting that these individuals belong to the H.larlar subspecies. In addition, two populations of H.l.lar were observed: (1) a southern population consisting of all 12 individuals from Peninsular Malaysia, and (2) a possible northern population represented by three individuals (from previous studies), which might have originated from the region between the Isthmus of Kra, Surat Thani-Krabi depression, and Kangar-Pattani. Our findings suggest that the complete control region segment can be used to determine the subspecies and origin of captive H.lar.

Estimating the emissions potential of marine transportation using the Kra Canal

The Panama and Suez canals greatly reduced pollutant emissions from shipping through much reduced sailing distances. Another possible future canal is across the Kra isthmus in Thailand, reducing sailing distances for ships travelling from East Asia to Europe that sail around the Malacca straits. Much literature considers the economic and political viability of the Kra Canal and notes the adverse environmental impact of the canal's construction. Yet, this literature also highlights the decarbonizing potential of the canal through reduced sailing distances and emissions. In this paper we critically consider this potential through the specific type of calculations in the study (ship emissions, etc.) and qualitative data consisting of the perspectives of experts (n = 20) from China (n = 5); Thailand (n = 5); Singapore (n = 5) and Taiwan (n = 5) gathered through semi-structured interviews. This data shows that, in fact, the canal might offer negative decarbonizing and emissions potential. This is due to a number of factors: the shorter reductions in sailing distances it affords compared to the Suez and Panama Canals; the economic models and political requirements to finance it, and; the currently available technologies. Nevertheless, the canal does offer potential for reducing distances and traffic in the Malacca straits if these factors change, and we outline and discuss these changes here.

Recent Progress in Taxonomic Studies, Biogeographic Analysis, and Revised Checklist of Amphibians in Indochina

The Indochinese Peninsula is recognized as one of the key global biodiversity hotspots. The amphibian fauna of Indochina (including Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand) is one of the richest in the world. About 60% of the known species were described within the last 20 years. We review the literature and our data to assess all recent discoveries and taxonomic changes and compile the first annotated checklist of the amphibian fauna of Indochina since the middle of the 20th century, including updated faunal lists for Vietnam and Thailand. Amphibian checklists for Laos and Cambodia are published for the first time. For each species we provide the following information: scientific name; recommended common name in English; information on type specimens; type locality; data on its distribution within Indochina and beyond; IUCN conservation status; taxonomic comment and the most important references. We review the distribution of each species across the 23 biogeographic subregions of Indochina, estimate the similarity among the regional faunas and evaluate their species richness and endemism. In total we record 423 amphibian species belonging to three orders, 11 families and 71 genera; 199 species (47%) are endemic to Indochina. Comprising 270 known species, the amphibian fauna of Vietnam is the richest (98 endemics, 36.3%), followed by Thailand with 194 species (29 endemics, 14.9%), Laos with 121 species (13 endemics, 10.7%), and Cambodia with 72 species (6 endemics, 8.3%). A cluster analysis of faunal similarity between the subregions shows two major assemblages, divided by the Isthmus of Kra. Within the northern mainland portion of Indochina three clusters can be distinguished: (1) northeastern and northwestern uplands of Vietnam and northern Laos; (2) Northern, Central, and Southern Annamites, the Bolaven Plateau, and central-south Vietnam lowlands; (3) western Indochinese subregions. We identify the Northeast and Northwest Uplands of Vietnam, the Northern, Central and Southern Annamites, the Cardamom Mountains, the mountains of Northeast Thailand, Northern Tenasserim and southern Peninsular Thailand as nine major centers of diversity and endemism of Indochinese amphibians. The analysis of amphibian distribution patterns across Indochina suggests the presence of 14 chorotypes grouped in five major range types. Our results underline the role of Indochina as a key area for amphibian diversity and conservation. Among 423 species of Indochinese amphibians, 152 species (35.9%) were considered as data deficient (DD) or were not evaluated (NE) according to the IUCN Red List criteria; while 76 species (18.0%) were considered vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN) or critically endangered (CR), 20 species (4.7%) were considered to be near threatened (NT), and 175 species (41.4%) to be of the least concern (LC). Our study thus has implications for further conservation efforts on regional and global levels, as well as for understanding the biogeographic patterns of amphibian richness and endemism in Asia.

Greater Bandicoot Rats (Bandicota indica) are Not Native to Sundaland Based on Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Analyses

Bandicoot rats (genus Bandicota) are distributed widely across the Indomalay biogeographic realm of tropical East Asia. One widely distributed species, the greater bandicoot rat (Bandicota indica), has a disjunct distribution including both north and south of the biogeographic break at the Isthmus of Kra. We compared genetic variation of greater bandicoot rats from north and south of the Isthmus of Kra using mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b, 1140 bp) and nuclear interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein (IRBP, 801 bp) sequences. We found that the greater bandicoot rat (B. indica) is not native to Sundaland, the region south of the Isthmus of Kra. The species was introduced to the region recently as the genetic divergence with other regions is very low and phylogenies of both genes showed Malaysian greater bandicoot rat very closely related to conspecifics from Lao PDR. Haplotype data revealed all individuals from Malaysia are homogenous, which implied that the species was introduced recently. The greater bandicoot rats in Malaysia are so far only reported in the rice producing regions of Kedah and Perlis, but they may be increasing in number and distribution. A more detailed survey on the distribution and population demographics of Malaysian greater bandicoot rats are needed to support a management plan for this invasive species.