Isomorphic Mimicry Research Articles

How gender mainstreaming plays out in Tanzania's climate‐smart agricultural policy: Isomorphic mimicry of international discourse

AbstractMotivationGender mainstreaming is often promoted internationally as the vehicle of choice to achieve gender equality. Concepts of mainstreaming are commonly seen in climate‐smart agriculture (CSA), where it is proposed that they can bridge gender gaps in agricultural input use and productivity. The rhetoric of mainstreaming, however, often relies upon and perpetuates gender myths and assumptions.PurposeWe investigate how gender mainstreaming has spread into Tanzania's agricultural policies. We ask whether the government has the capacity to put these concepts into practice to address gender inequality. We explore this in the context of CSA, an increasingly important aspect of agricultural policy.Methods and approachUsing the literature on policy transfer and isomorphism, we critically analyse gendered discourse in Tanzania's CSA policies to explore how gender is problematised and governed within policy. We use NVivo 12 to inductively code policy documents. We support these insights with the observations of key informants.FindingsWe find little evidence that gender has been effectively mainstreamed in Tanzania's CSA policies. We see a gap between the normative goal of gender mainstreaming and the practices intended to address gender (and intersectional) inequalities. The gap is made all the wider by limited recognition within government‐from national to local—of how such inequalities affect agriculture. Not only are policies detached from local contexts leading to infeasible plans, but also local government lacks both resources and capacity to implement them.Policy implicationsOur study calls into question much of the global discourse on gender mainstreaming, especially the myths that support it. It shows how representing the problem in a particular way can lead to dysfunctional policy.A better approach would be to start with understanding the various inequalities seen in agriculture in Tanzania, inequalities of gender but also of class. It would take into account the capacity to implement policy in the field. A more practical approach, tailored to the realities of rural Tanzania, would benefit the people of Tanzania more than just imitating questionable international discourse.

Isomorphic dynamics in national action plans on antimicrobial resistance

AbstractThe article investigates isomorphic dynamics in the development and implementation of national action plans (NAPs) on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) following the World Health Assembly's adoption of a Global Action Plan on AMR in 2015. Through a nested approach, we conduct a quantitative cross‐country analysis of this policy process with particular emphasis on form (the NAP design) and function (their implementation). The qualitative component consists of three illustrative examples from Japan, Myanmar, and Denmark, which represent different types of responses to this internationally driven policy process. The analysis reveals tendencies of isomorphic mimicry characterized by a clear rift between the drafting of NAPs and their implementation, particularly in low‐income and lower‐middle‐income countries. Interestingly, there is also evidence of typically high‐income member states with substantial leverage deviating from global guidelines when compiling their NAPs—a trend we term “isomorphic posturing.” We argue that both types of isomorphic behaviors inhibit global harmonization around best practices and conclude that the mismatch between policy design and policy implementation in the AMR field can best be solved by establishing international, legally binding agreements that adhere to the benefit principle and individualized responsibilities.

Isomorphic mimicry and the effectiveness of water-sector reforms in Brazil

Despite the efforts of various governments and the different reforms in the water sector related to water and sanitation services (WSS), Brazil continues to experience significant difficulties in achieving universal access, having a long way to go to reach this goal. This article discusses the barriers to WSS universal access in Brazil. By analyzing policies, institutions, and regulation (PIR) and the associated enabling environment, we assert that the leading cause of failure is isomorphic mimicry. We further suggest that only with a better alignment of PIR can adequate incentives be provided for universal and sustainable WSS.

Isomorphic Mimicry and Social Inclusion: an Analysis of the Capability of Wonosobo District Government in Implementing the Inclusive Education Policy

This article examines the implementation of the inclusive education policy to provide educational services for children with disabilities. Using a conceptual framework concerning disability and social inclusion, and isomorphic mimicry and capability, this article aims to explain Wonosobo District Government's capability in implementing inclusive education policy. This article is based on a qualitative study, using a case study approach with descriptive analysis. We argue that Wonosobo District Government's capability to implement inclusive education policy is in a weak or limited position (weak capability). This is a depiction of isomorphic mimicry, where the inclusive education policy in Wonosobo District seems to be functional. As its implication, children with disabilities are vulnerable to being excluded from obtaining inclusive education services.

The Agadir Agreement: The Capability Traps of Isomorphic Mimicry

AbstractIn 2004, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, and Jordan signed the Agadir Agreement (AA), a free trade agreement with intention of encouraging closer cooperation in trade. The AA came into force in 2007 and relies on the EU's rules of origin. Contrary to existing explanations, which suggest that the little impact of the AA on intraregional trade is a result of the local political elites in the agreement and of weak state institutions, this article amends the concept of isomorphic mimicry to shed some light on the ineffectiveness of the AA. It claims that instead of acting as a vehicle for regional integration, the AA generated two capability traps: premature load bearing and the reproduction of the structural weaknesses of Arab Mediterranean economies. As a result, the AA does not act as an instrument of intraregional cooperation and inclusive growth.

The global governance of antimicrobial resistance: a cross-country study of alignment between the global action plan and national action plans

BackgroundAntimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing problem worldwide in need of global coordinated action. With the endorsement of the Global Action Plan (GAP) on AMR in 2015, the 194 member states of the World Health Organization committed to integrating the five objectives and corresponding actions of the GAP into national action plans (NAPs) on AMR. The article analyzes patterns of alignment between existing NAPs and the GAP, bringing to the fore new methodologies for exploring the relationship between globally driven health policies and activities at the national level, taking income, geography and governance factors into account.MethodsThe article investigates the global governance of AMR. Concretely, two proxies are devised to measure vertical and horizontal alignment between the GAP and existing NAPs: (i) a syntactic indicator measuring the degree of verbatim overlap between the GAP and the NAPs; and (ii) a content indicator measuring the extent to which the objectives and corresponding actions outlined in the GAP are addressed in the NAPs. Vertical alignment is measured by the extent to which each NAP overlaps with the GAP. Horizontal alignment is explored by measuring the degree to which NAPs overlap with other NAPs across regions and income groups. In addition, NAP implementation is explored using the Global Database for Antimicrobial Resistance Country Self-Assessment.FindingsWe find strong evidence of vertical alignment, particularly among low-income countries and lower-middle-income countries but weaker evidence of horizontal alignment within regions. In general, we find the NAPs in our sample to be mostly aligned with the GAP’s five overarching objectives while only moderately aligned with the recommended corresponding actions. Furthermore, we see several cases of what can be termed ‘isomorphic mimicry’, characterized by strong alignment in the policies outlined but much lower levels of alignment in terms of actual implemented policies.ConclusionTo strengthen the alignment of national AMR policies, we recommend global governance initiatives based on individualized responsibilities some of which should be legally binding. Our study provides limited evidence of horizontal alignment within regions, which implies that regional governance institutions (e.g., WHO regional offices) should primarily act as mediators between global and local demands to strengthen a global governance regime that minimizes policy fragmentation and mimicry behavior across member states.

Child Marriage in Bangladesh: Policy and Ethics

Bangladesh is a Muslim-majority society with more than 163 million people. Most Bangladeshis hold the ideals of Islamic norms and values which is manifest in all sorts of socio-cultural behaviour. In reference to such values, the tradition of legitimizing child marriage in Bangladesh is the issue that needs to be addressed in a holistic yet rigorous approach. Currently Bangladesh ranks 4th in the world and 1st in Asia in terms of child marriage. Recently the Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 has been abolished and it has been replaced by the Act of 2017 preserving article 2 of the previous statute, the legal age for marriage for a boy 21 and for a girl 18. This Act adds article 19 which legalizes minors (below 18 years of age) to be married off with the consent of the parents/guardians at the presence of a magistrate under “special circumstances” deemed with securing the best interest for them. The law artfully coincides with the Muslim Marriage Law which allows participants of 15 years and above to get legally married and as such contradicts the international law and the Act of 2017 itself. In the West intimate relationships including extra-marital cohabitation before reaching 18 years of age are culturally accepted. In contrast, such extra-marital and intimate relationships are strictly prohibited in Muslim-majority societies, which are dearly adhered in Bangladeshi Muslim culture. This study examines how the religious cultural and socio-economic realities influence child marriage practice in Bangladesh. Along with secondary documents, we interviewed 22 individuals including the Deputy Commissioner, the District Women and Children Affairs Officer, elected Union Parishad Chairman and Members, Social Workers, married couples and their parents/guardians at Manikganj district. In addition, we also conducted a mass survey with 62 randomly selected participants, and a voluntary online survey where the opinion of another 53 young students were collected to find broad opinion. We also collected stories of how marriages take place at the rural, urban and sub-urban areas in Bangladesh. The study has revealed that Bangladeshis does not support marriage at early ages but socio-economic reality often pushes poor into getting their children married at early ages. Many view that the special provision may encourage child marriage in the country. This study suggests that the government of Bangladesh should redefine public policy in regard to finding a middle ground between Islamic ethics and international values by exploring isomorphic mimicry and other socio-culturally accepted measures with a view to abolishing child marriage successfully.

Agenda Setting in Water and IWRM: Discourse Analysis of Water Policy Debate in Pakistan

This article explores the water policy narrative in Pakistan, and identifies its historical trajectories and influences, as well as the impact of the global agenda setting of water for 2030. For this purpose, water sector reforms in Pakistan are examined as a case study. The National Water Policy (NWP) 2018 and Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) reforms are critically evaluated and loopholes identified, in terms of both theoretical aspects and constraints in their practical implementation. The overall analysis reveals that the engineering narrative is dominant in policy circles and large-scale infrastructure construction is seen as an exceptional measure to overcome the current loss of storage potential due to sedimentation. On the other hand, the adoption of the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) framework reflects the desire of state institutions to imbue water policy reform with international credibility. The IWRM framework has been adopted as isomorphic mimicry to appease international financing institutions and donors. PIM reform is thus far from delivering the desired results due to ideological battles among new (i.e., the Participatory Farmers Institution) and traditional bureaucratic irrigation institutions. As adopted, the global agenda setting of water, in the shape of IWRM, is a repackaging of existing activities, and prevents alternative thinking in the setting of water priorities according to developmental needs.

One size does not fit all: an analysis of the corruption preventative approach of the Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC) in Bangladesh

ABSTRACTThis paper argues that the global citizens’ engagement movement against corruption does not always succeed in developing countries, such as Bangladesh. Drawing on the case of the preventative strategies of the Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC) in Bangladesh, this paper shows that government-driven citizens’ engagement processes through community-based organisations (CBOs) are a ceremonial adaptation in response to isomorphic pressure from the donors. The outcomes from isomorphic pressure suggest that such donor-funded actions produce ‘isomorphic mimicry’ of successful corruption prevention programmes from other countries that do not succeed in the recipient country. A micro-level analysis based on interviews with stakeholders in Bangladesh demonstrates why isomorphic mimicry has failed to produce a robust anti-corruption prevention approach in Bangladesh.

‘Somehow This Whole Process Became so Artificial’: Exploring the Transitional Justice Implementation Gap in Uganda

Abstract∞ This article explores a key challenge in contemporary international efforts to promote transitional justice (TJ) in nontransitioning, conflict-affected states: the ‘implementation gap,’ in which policies are designed and funded but neither enacted nor implemented. Findings based on long-term qualitative fieldwork in Uganda indicate the implementation gap is co-constituted by technocratic donor approaches and domestic elite political maneuvering in a semi-authoritarian regime. The interaction between the two produces two forms of political artifice: ‘isomorphic mimicry’ and ‘calculated stasis,’ which stall the emergence of substantive TJ reform. Findings are relevant to the wide range of nontransitioning contexts where TJ is promoted by international donors and have important implications for its claimed potential to catalyze or restore civic trust in political systems in the aftermath of massive human rights violations.

The e-government paradox in post-Soviet countries

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the emergence of e-government in post-Soviet countries using Kazakhstan as a case study. Extant research on e-government in developing countries highlights significant benefits including improved public services, reduced corruption, and more open and inclusive government. The paper asserts the presence of an e-government paradox which limits its potential to improve public services.Design/methodology/approachPrimary data were collected from a number of sources: 6 focus groups with central government agencies, local authorities and civil society organisations; 25 structured and semi-structured interviews; and participant observation.FindingsThe research finds evidence of an e-government paradox in five forms: an emphasis on technological development; transactional services are faster but have displaced attention from core public services; petty corruption has been reduced but grand corruption remains; isomorphic mimicry; and greater participation by citizens has been limited.Research limitations/implicationsThe focus of the research is Kazakhstan. Applying the lessons learned to other post-Soviet countries has limitations given their different stages of development since independence.Practical implicationsThe key practical implication of this research is that countries can become absorbed by e-government technology without questioning the fundamental business model which underpins how public services are delivered. Ultimately, this impacts on the social value of e-government.Originality/valueWhile existing research has examined how e-government has been implemented in developing countries, this paper focusses on Kazakhstan as an authoritarian state with wider implications for post-Soviet countries.

Varieties of State-Building in Africa: Elites, Ideas and the Politics of Public Sector Reform

Why do some states in Africa seem to be stuck in a spiral of corruption and institutional weakness? Why do others somehow build effective bureaucracies that are able and willing to tackle the challenges of development? The public sector remains the inescapable anchor of development, whether for good or ill, but our understanding of the politics of public sector reform remains shackled by concepts that do not allow for variation or change over time. This paper presents a theoretical framework for understanding variations in public sector reform (PSR): centering the analysis on the intersection of power relations and ideas, the paper shows how the stability of a country’s elite settlement and the coherence of its developmental ideology interact with reform ideas in the PSR policy domain. This framework is explored through a structured-focused comparison of reform experiences in three Sub-Saharan African countries with different elite settlements: competitive Ghana; weakly dominant Uganda; and dominant Rwanda. In Ghana, where successive regimes have focused on political control for partisan purposes, it has been quick reforms compatible with top-down control that have achieved political traction. In Uganda, high-visibility reforms were introduced to secure donor funding, as long as they did not threaten the ruling coalition’s power. In Rwanda, lastly, the regime has fostered and protected various public sector reforms because it envisioned them as instruments for domestic legitimation as constituent elements of an impartial developmental state. In combination, policy domain, elite time horizons, and ideational fit allow us to move beyond blanket statements about isomorphic mimicry or neopatrimonialism, and towards a more nuanced understanding of the varieties of state-building in Africa.

The Challenge of Building (Real) State Capability

Efforts to build state capability often take the form of commonly used, highly designed and engineered best practice solutions that have worked in many other places and that we suspect (and hope) will work again in many contexts. Such interventions do sometimes work, especially when the treatment actually addresses problems that fester in the context. Where the contextual problems are different, however, the treatment is just isomorphic mimicry — it looks good but will not be a solution to problems that actually matter. Development organizations often cannot see this, however, and offer the same solution again and again — hoping for a different outcome but imposing a capability trap on the policy context, where a new diagnosis and prescription is actually needed. In some countries the treatment has an even worse impact, fostering premature load bearing — where the context cannot actually handle what is prescribed. How can development experts identify in advance where they will have such negative impacts, and how can they identify in advance where they need to do development differently? This paper addresses such questions, and introduces an approach to building state capability in the latter contexts (called 1804 contexts), called problem driven iterative adaptation.

Mimicry, Persuasion, or Learning? The Case of Two Transparency and Anti‐Corruption Policies in Romania

SummaryPublic sector reforms in developing countries based on global “best practices” have come under increasing criticism in the development community. The charge is that in trying to increase international legitimacy, governments copy institutional forms that are not suited to the local context. Yet, such mimicry is not the only driver of international policy diffusion. Domestic policy entrepreneurs learn from experiences of other countries and invoke global norms and values in advancing their preferred policy options. Pressures for mimicry can help such policy entrepreneurs counter resistance from domestic elites, especially in the case of value‐based policies, such as transparency and anti‐corruption policies. The cases of the Freedom of Information Act and the Asset Disclosure Laws in Romania are used to illustrate how external pressure for legitimacy can empower domestic policy entrepreneurs and facilitate a process akin to “problem‐driven iterative adaptation” advocated by critics of isomorphic mimicry in public sector reform. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Escaping Capability Traps Through Problem-Driven Iterative Adaptation (PDIA)

Many reform initiatives in developing countries fail to achieve sustained improvements in performance because they are merely isomorphic mimicry — that is, governments and organizations pretend to reform by changing what policies or organizations look like rather than what they actually do. In addition, the flow of development resources and legitimacy without demonstrated improvements in performance undermines the impetus for effective action to build state capability or improve performance. This dynamic facilitates “capability traps” in which state capability stagnates, or even deteriorates, over long periods of time even though governments remain engaged in developmental rhetoric and continue to receive development resources. How can countries escape capability traps? We propose an approach, Problem-Driven Iterative Adaptation (PDIA), based on four core principles, each of which stands in sharp contrast with the standard approaches. First, PDIA focuses on solving locally nominated and defined problems in performance (as opposed to transplanting preconceived and packaged “best practice” solutions). Second, it seeks to create an authorizing environment for decision-making that encourages positive deviance and experimentation (as opposed to designing projects and programs and then requiring agents to implement them exactly as designed). Third, it embeds this experimentation in tight feedback loops that facilitate rapid experiential learning (as opposed to enduring long lag times in learning from ex post “evaluation”). Fourth, it actively engages broad sets of agents to ensure that reforms are viable, legitimate, relevant, and supportable (as opposed to a narrow set of external experts promoting the top-down diffusion of innovation).

Escaping Capability Traps Through Problem Driven Iterative Adaptation (PDIA)

Many development initiatives fail to improve performance because they promote isomorphic mimicry—governments change what they look like, not what they do . This article proposes a new approach to doing development, Problem-Driven Iterative Adaptation (PDIA), which contrasts with standard approaches. PDIA focuses on solving locally nominated and prioritized performance problems (instead of transplanting “best practice” solutions). PDIA encourages positive deviance and experimentation (instead of requiring that agents implement policies as designed). PDIA creates feedback loops that facilitate rapid learning (instead of lagged learning from ex post evaluation). PDIA engages many agents to create viable, relevant interventions (instead of depending on external experts).

Looking Like a State: Techniques of Persistent Failure in State Capability for Implementation

In many nations today the state has little capability to carry out even basic functions like security, policing, regulation or core service delivery. Enhancing this capability, especially in fragile states, is a long-term task: countries like Haiti or Liberia will take many decades to reach even a moderate capability country like India, and millennia to reach the capability of Singapore. Short-term programmatic efforts to build administrative capability in these countries are thus unlikely to be able to demonstrate actual success, yet billions of dollars continue to be spent on such activities. What techniques enable states to ‘buy time’ to enable reforms to work, to mask non-accomplishment, or actively to resist or deflect the internal and external pressures for improvement? How do donor and recipient countries manage to engage in the logics of ‘development’ for so long and yet consistently acquire so little administrative capability? We document two such techniques: (a) systemic isomorphic mimicry, wherein the outward forms (appearances, structures) of functional states and organisations elsewhere are adopted to camouflage a persistent lack of function; and (b) premature load bearing, in which indigenous learning, the legitimacy of change and the support of key political constituencies are undercut by the routine placement of highly unrealistic expectations on fledging systems. We conclude with some suggestions for sabotaging these techniques.

Legislative Participation in Budgetary Systems: Is there Evidence of Convergence?

Concepts such as lesson-drawing, policy diffusion, policy transfer and, more recently, “isomorphic mimicry” have been used to suggest that, over time, administrative practices, policies and governance systems across countries are converging. Three different sources of data are used to examine the extent of convergence in the roles of legislatures in budget processes. Taken together, there is very limited evidence of convergence despite the efforts of entities such as the International Budget Partnership or and the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development.

Integrating HIV and Maternal Health Services: Will Organizational Culture Clash Sow the Seeds of a New and Improved Implementation Practice?

Drawing on an analysis by Pritchett et al of the "techniques of persistent implementation failure" common across many development sectors, this commentary suggests that health systems attempting to integrate maternal health and HIV services may need to contend with a profound clash of organizational cultures. For decades, countries have been pressed to implement global "best practices" in maternal health without attention to the systemic capacity building needed to support complex interventions. The result is often form without function, a kind of "isomorphic mimicry" in which policy documents and program plans that meet global standards ultimately camouflage deep dysfunction in the actual delivery of lifesaving services. As a result, the organizational culture that surrounds maternal health services often stands in stark contrast to the can-do style that has characterized the rapid, well-resourced deployment of HIV services over the last few years. As integration proceeds, the resolution of this clash may hold the seeds of a much-needed transformation of implementation support practices in both fields.

Capability Traps? The Mechanisms of Persistent Implementation Failure

Many countries remain stuck in situations of low productivity (and hence lower GDP per capita and widespread poverty). This has been both well documented as a fact and has attracted many explanations, both of the deep structural causes of such stagnation as well as the more proximate mechanisms that allow and facilitate persistent slow growth. Economic growth is only one dimension of development; another is the expansion of the administrative capability of the state, the capability that allows governments to affect the course of events by implementing policies and programs. We document that many countries in the world remain in capability in which the capability of the state to implement is both severely limited and improving (if at all) only very slowly: at their current pace of progress such countries would take hundreds (if not thousands) of years to reach the levels of high capability countries. We then explore how this can be so. That is, we do not attempt to explain why countries remain in capability traps - this would require a historical, political and social analysis - and an analysis that was unique to each country. Rather we focus on how countries manage to engage in the domestic and international logics of development and yet fail to acquire capability. What are the techniques of failures? Two stand out. First, 'big development' encourage progress through importing standard responses to predetermined problems. This encourages isomorphic mimicry as a technique of failure: the adoption of the forms of other functional states and organizations which camouflages a persistent lack of function. Second, an inadequate theory of developmental change reinforces a fundamental mismatch between expectations and the actual capacity of prevailing administrative systems to implement even the most routine administrative tasks. This leads to premature load bearing in which wishful thinking about the pace of progress and unrealistic expectations about the level and rate of improvement of capability lead to stresses and demands on systems that cause capability to weaken (if not collapse). A companion paper (Andrews, Pritchett and Woolcock 2010) explores how to create conditions for progress by sabotaging the techniques of failure.