Islamic Order Research Articles

Integration of Islam and Education

This article examines the integration of Islam and education. The objective of this article is to understand the importance of education in life and explore the relationship between religion and education. The research method employed is qualitative descriptive with the data collection technique of literature review, using an interdisciplinary approach to understand the educational context from the perspective of Islam in order to describe the integration of Islam and education descriptively. What makes this article interesting is its emphasis on the significance of education in life and the revelation of the relationship between religion and education. The research findings highlight that through the provision of education, individuals gain an understanding of the meaning and purpose of life, enabling them to experience the sweetness of life with everything it encompasses. Conversely, individuals without a foundation of education may lack awareness of the meaning and purpose of life, leading to a lack of satisfaction and happiness. Furthermore, the relationship between religion and education is depicted as mutually reinforcing, where religion serves as the most crucial foundation for education. Education grounded in religion, according to the article, gives rise to a distinctive meaning. Islam views education as a right for everyone, regardless of gender, and it is considered a lifelong process. Within the realm of education, Islam is seen as a source of inspiration with a complex and clear formulation in terms of goals, curriculum, methods, teachers, facilities, and more.

Majelis Ta’lim sebagai Lembaga Pendidikan Islam Non Formal di Indonesia

Majelis ta’lim is a non-formal Islamic educational institution that has its own curriculum, is held regularly, and is attended by relatively large congregations. It aims to build polite and harmonious relationships between humans and Allah SWT, humans and others, and the environment, fostering a community that is devoted to Allah SWT. The majlis ta’lim system has developed since the beginning of the spread of Islam in the Arabian continent, then spread throughout the Islamic world in Asia, Africa, and Indonesia, especially those that continue to grow today with the main mission of teaching Islam to Muslims. Even in Indonesia, the majlis ta’lim is a component of national education activities. The role of the ta’lim assembly in society is to strengthen the foundation of human life in the field of Islam in order to improve the quality of life integrally, physically and spiritually, worldly and spiritually, in accordance with Islamic teachings, namely faith and piety, which underlie life in the world and all areas of its activities. This research is library research by collecting various information from books and journals. This article explains the meaning, development, and role of the Majlis Ta’lim as a non-formal Islamic educational institution in Indonesia.

Efektivitas Penggunaan Media Pembelajaran Al-Islam di SLBN 1 Yogyakarta

This research is based on researchers' searches on the effectiveness of Islamic learning media located in SLB N 1 Yogyakarta. Rooted in the problem, the researchers acquired some media that they felt were not optimal. Not a few media have been applied to teachers of Islam in order to encourage optimal student development. However, it is not easy for teachers to implement the media that has been designed as expected. Therefore, teachers are more dominant in applying learning media in a flexible way and adjusting each and every one of them. This research uses descriptive qualitative methods. The research methods used are observations, interviews, and documentation. The results of the research show that the Islamic learning media in SLB N 1 Yogyakarta has a positive impact on both students and teachers. Teachers and students have become more open and the Islamic learning system has become more structured with adequate media and learning methods. In addition, the system of admission of new students is implemented gradually to make it easier for students and teachers to carry out their studies. Each class listed also has its own grouping so that learning becomes more enjoyable and effective

شرعی سزائیں: منٹگمری واٹ اور رابرٹ اسپنسر کی آرا کا تقابلی جائزہ

Islam is a complete code of life that encompasses faith, culture, law and the social order. It proposes a society of righteousness and justice. Criminal behavior is not tolerated in the Islamic order of society. This type of behavior is breach of God’s sovereignty, hence stiffer penalties are prescribed. This paper examines opinions of two western scholars found in their Quran commentaries about hudud punishments in Islamic penal system. The writers apply historiography, comparing and content analyzing methodologies in this study. The findings suggest that both orientalists thinking and approaches have shown a debatable point of view and biased judgment in evaluating Islamic legal system.

Handling Islamophobia in Edmund Spenser’s Poem The Faerie Queen

Being a growing religion throughout the world, Islam isincreasingly becoming the ghost which threatens to shatter the establishednorms of the Western thinking. Islamophobia, hence, grew as a doctrine whichdesignates fear and antagonisms towards Islam as a religion and a system ofcultural behavior. It has been widely represented in English literaturethroughout various literary ages. This paper is concerned with Islamophobia inEdmund Spenser‟s epic poem The Faerie Queene (1595), which is rankedamong the greatest works in the history of English literature. Spenser employsthis work to represent his biased attitude to Christianity and to portray thetyrannous reign of Muslims. The paper argues that Islamophobia, as a concept,is recently conjured; however it is very old as an ideology in the history of thehuman race since it represents the Western mindset which is based on theprejudice and hatred of the „other.‟ The faerie Queen, which is set in themedieval ages, reflects a religious antagonism towards Muslims who achievedgreat victories over the Crusaders in Jerusalem. The paper, for this reason,questions whether the term of Islamophobia which is a modern one is fit todescribe the prejudiced tone against Muslims in a sixteenth century work. Itemploys Edward Said‟s discourse of the binary opposition, which has beentackled in his outstanding book Orientalism, as a theoretical framework. It alsocomes across his book covering Islam in order to argue that Islam has beenportrayed as a „form of heresy‟, synonymous with terrorism and religioushysteria.

Umer Chapra's Critique of The Western Concept of Welfare State

This study aims to dissect Chapra's critique of the Western concept of welfare state, and his thoughts on welfare state in Islam in order to solve the problem of impasse in the thinking of modern economists. This research provides enlightenment on how the concept of the welfare state is actually in Islam through the idea of Umer Chapra. The relevance of his thoughts is juxtaposed with the current state of the Indonesian state. This research is expected to be a strong reference for academics and practitioners in addressing the concept of the welfare state. The method in this study uses a qualitative approach with a library research model. Data is obtained from various sources, such as Umer Chapra's master book in the discussion of welfare states, journals, or news info from newspapers. The results of the study show that Umer Chapra's criticism is very comprehensive. Chapra focused in his mind on the Islamic worldview, economic strategy, and welfare state goals. Islamic values are instilled in the strategy of regulating the country's economy. As for its relevance to the state of Indonesia, the results of the analysis show that Chapra's criticism of the welfare state and his thoughts are still relevant to the current state of Indonesia.

Post-Islamism and the Rise of Sharia Laws in Contemporary Indonesia: Aspirations of Implementing Islamic Laws in a Democratic Era

Islamism is an ideology and a movement that seeks to build an Islamic order in the form of an Islamic state and the enforcement of sharia law. However, in Indonesia during the democratization period in the early 2000s, many Islamic organizations, including Islamic parties and Islamic movements, liberated themselves from hiding and even opened their organizational philosophies to accommodate wider issues and concerns. While retaining their Islamic identity, some Islamic groups are turning towards the secularization of their goals and objectives as a means of adapting to the changing political environment. Political analysts refer to this development as post-Islamism. This change in attitude is to some extent due to the fact that Islamic legal institutions have become more prominent since the reform era. While retaining their Islamic identity, Islamic groups are turning towards the secularization of their goals and objectives as a means of adapting to the new political environment and changing the agenda of most Islamic political movements by way of Islamizing Indonesian values. That's why the color of legislation in Indonesia is more Islamic.

Implementation of the Application of Khiyar in Buying and Selling Transactions in Traditional Markets and Buying and Selling Online

Basically, when conducting a sale and purchase transaction, the party concerned has the right to continue or cancel the contract. This is a solution for Islam in order to create convenience for consumers to make buying and selling transactions, namely with the existence of khiyar rights. Khiyar is needed in a sale and purchase transaction so that the parties concerned can maintain the interests of their needs and create willingness on both sides so that they cannot cause losses. What happens most often is in online buying and selling transactions because at that time the parties did not meet face to face. The purpose of this writing is to explain and inform anyone who conducts buying and selling transactions both in traditional markets and buying and selling online that how important it is to apply khiyar in buying and selling so as not to cause losses. The method used in this writing is by interviewing the parties who have canceled the sale and purchase contract. The result of this writing is that it can be seen how many parties feel a loss in a transaction because many sellers are dishonest or do not know about the damage to the goods they sell. This happens a lot in traditional markets which causes buyers to feel at a loss when they buy it. Besides that, there are several traditional markets that can apply khiyar rights to consumers, but very few do this, because the sellers are afraid of feeling a loss if consumers return goods that have been damaged and then replace them with other goods. Especially in buying and selling online, many sellers who apply the system do not accept cancellation of sales and purchases if the item has been received by the consumer.

Implementation of the Application of Khiyar in Buying and Selling Transactions in Traditional Markets and Buying and Selling Online

Basically, when conducting a sale and purchase transaction, the party concerned has the right to continue or cancel the contract. This is a solution for Islam in order to create convenience for consumers to make buying and selling transactions, namely with the existence of khiyar rights. Khiyar is needed in a sale and purchase transaction so that the parties concerned can maintain the interests of their needs and create willingness on both sides so that they cannot cause losses. What happens most often is in online buying and selling transactions because at that time the parties did not meet face to face. The purpose of this writing is to explain and inform anyone who conducts buying and selling transactions both in traditional markets and buying and selling online that how important it is to apply khiyar in buying and selling so as not to cause losses. The method used in this writing is by interviewing the parties who have canceled the sale and purchase contract. The result of this writing is that it can be seen how many parties feel a loss in a transaction because many sellers are dishonest or do not know about the damage to the goods they sell. This happens a lot in traditional markets which causes buyers to feel at a loss when they buy it. Besides that, there are several traditional markets that can apply khiyar rights to consumers, but very few do this, because the sellers are afraid of feeling a loss if consumers return goods that have been damaged and then replace them with other goods. Especially in buying and selling online, many sellers who apply the system do not accept cancellation of sales and purchases if the item has been received by the consumer.

STYLE OF POLITICAL PREACHING OF IMAM MALIK BIN ANAS ( AMAM OF DARELHIJRAH ) THROUGH HIS CORRESP ONDENCE WITH CALIPH HAROON ELRASHEED AND HIS MINISTER YEHYA BIN KHALID AL – BARMAKI


 
 
 Political characters in Islam are outnumbered, however their cultural sources varries according to their cultural resources and ethnic affiliation. When men of religion involve in politics, policy will wear a religions cloak So it is a legitimate policy under the religion because it is part of religion as it is the case in Imam Malik bin Anas through his trea tise in Sunnahs, preaches, Literatures for Haroon elrasheed and his minister yahya bin khalid Al-Barmaki in an attempt to create the core of concepts of politics and governance in Islam In order to support the Caliphate Foundation against competing cultures on the ground.
 
 

PENDIDIKAN ALTERNATIF SEBAGAI WADAH DAKWAH DALAM KALANGAN MINORITI ROHINGYA DI MALAYSIA


 
 
 The influx of Rohingya refugees in Malaysia is increasing from year to year; it is estimated that they have lived in the country for more than two decades since the 1980s. Among the factors that attract them to seek refuge in Malaysia are political stability, peace, religious sentiments, and economic growth. However, without valid documents, they have no guarantee to enjoy their due rights including access to formal education in Malaysia. Although they cannot get a formal education, they can get alternative education provided by certain parties. Thus, this paper aims to identify the background of alternative education in Malaysia specifically for Rohingya refugees, as well as to identify the role of alternative education and its problems as a platform for learning Islam in order to form a Muslim identity among Rohingya refugees in Malaysia. This qualitative study uses historical analysis and content analysis approaches from previous studies. The results of this study show that the Islamic approach is the main basis for the establishment of an alternative education centre in Malaysia. Most alternative education centres managed by local non-governmental organisations (NGOs) combine elements of Islamic education such as fiqh, akhlaq, sirah, the Qu’ran and tajwid with academic and skills education.
 
 

The Obligation of Establishment of Governance and Civilian-Non Theocratic Nature of Government in Islam

Governance is a religious obligation in Islam in order to maintain law and order, cater for the welfare of people, ensure justice and fair play and facilitate observance of religious duties, as religion could only be practised and practised well in an atmosphere of peace. By religious duties, we should not be mistaken for prayer, Islamic tax (charity), fasting, and pilgrimage alone as worship or devotional duties in Islam ramificates every aspect of a Muslim life. It includes and covers everything a Muslim could do to please his Lord-including good governance which is the hallmark of Islamic governance or political system. However, as important and as obligatory governance is to Islam, government is civilian – and not a theocratic- institution. Although, the Religion of Islam as well as the Holy Scripture, the Qur’an, which encapsulates or embodies its teachings, is Divine, yet their interpretations and implementations are human. This interpretation and implementation which forms the explanation/understanding (fiqh/fahm) of the law (shari’ah) are meant to guide Muslims in the proper understanding of their rights and duties not only to Allah but from and to their fellow human beings. Hence Islamic governance system is theo-communocentric rather than being just theocentric. Although, the basics remain unchanged, these interpretations are affected by the prevailing circumstances of a given time and clime, popularly referred to by scholars as fiqh waq’in. Thus, individuals are responsible for whatever interpretation and implementation they make of the law. Suffice to say therefore, that one of the reasons why governance is obligatory in Islam is, to maintain unity and universality of Islam and to ensure peaceful co-existence, albeit peaceful society where the practice of religion is encouraged and facilitated. This paper therefore, tries to examine why the establishment of governance is obligatory and why government is civilian and therefore theo-communocentric rather than being theocratic in Islam.

Boko Haram Jihad Claim in Nigeria and the Sanctity of Life and Property in Islamic law

Like many countries, Nigeria faces serious acute security challenges due to heinous activities of the deadly group known as Boko Haram (lit. Western Education is Prohibited (Haram)). Right from her emergence till date, this militant group has been terrorizing lives and properties of innocent citizens of the country under the guise of Jihad. But, this jihad claim is baseless in the light of the group’s wanton violation of life and property, the two of the five necessary human interests (maqāsid daruriyyah) which the Shari’ah seeks to protect. Therefore, this paper studies the Boko Haram Jihad claim viz-a-viz her wanton violation of life and property which are regarded by the Islamic law as inalienable human rights as underscored in the theory of maqāṣid al-sharīʿah (Objectives of Shari’ah). Relevant materials were consulted in libraries to carry out the research. Inter alia, it becomes clear from the findings that the concept of Jihad is a sacred duty in Islam, but it has been abused by Boko Haram as evident in her unjustifiable violation of life and property of innocent citizens. This is against the principles of the Qur‘an and the Sunnah, which the group always claims to defend. The paper argues that, while Jihad is sanctioned in Islam, it is guided by rules and regulations. Because life and property are sacrosanct in Islam and nothing can justify their violation as being perpetrated by Boko Haram in Nigeria. Hence, the group’s jihad claim is far from the truth because her activities contradict the lofty objectives of Islamic law (maqāṣid al-sharīʿah) which seek to protect life and property etc. The paper recommends that groups and individuals must have proper understanding of Islam in order to propagate it correctly. Otherwise, the religion of peace would be mistaken for violence and terrorism. Also, the government of Nigeria should ensure fair hearing and justice in dealing with any insurgent groups. This is necessary in view of unfortunate extra-judicial killing of the Boko Haram leader which turned out to be a seed of violence in the northern part of the country.

Religious rules and thick description: some thoughts from the anthropology of Islam

The recent anthropology of ethics has sought to look beyond rules to themes such as the cultivation of the virtuous self. Anthropology generally has grown impatient with what Bourdieu called ‘the fallacies of the rule’ as a key term for describing the social. But rules remain a crucial dimension of ethical practice in many contexts, including religious ones. This article focuses on British Muslim conceptions and practice of the religious rules of Islam in order to highlight the complexity, diversity, and subtlety of everyday practices of rule-following. Sticking to the rules, even in the non-Muslim majority setting of the UK, is important to many, although what it means to follow the rules and how to do so are not always straightforward. By going beyond stereotypes of ‘mere’ ‘rigid’ rules, blindly followed or boldly evaded, I demonstrate both the necessity and the possibility of a thicker description of religious rules. Keywords: Rules; piety; ethics; morality; Islam; Shia; sharia

Production Function According to Yusuf Qardhawi in Islamic Economics

Economic activities, one of which is production, is taught in the Qur'an. In the context of Islamic economics, a Muslim producer must behave in accordance with the norms and ethics of Islamic economic production. It takes a knowledge and understanding of production behavior according to Islam in order to fulfill this behavior. Knowledge of a concept greatly influences a person's behavior. Yusuf Qardhawi's thoughts on the factors of production are that production only has two main elements, namely natural resources and human resources in the form of labor. Yusuf Qardhawi further explained that natural resources are very much needed to be managed by humans, therefore, in production, labor is needed. New production appears when there is a combination of work between human resources and natural resources. While the capital factor is not included in the main factor because capital is nothing more than the result of human labor that is stored. Another reason capital is not included is because this problem is related to usury which is forbidden. Meanwhile, other elements such as organization are only supervision, regulation and production strategy.

Conceptions of Constitutional Law in the Programmes of Islamist Movements

The author analyses in his contribution the attitudes of the scholars and ideologues of different Islamist movements in the Middle East towards the institution of the nation-state. He explains the Islamist conception of the Islamic Order, the Islamist model of the state. The model is based on the practical achievements of the Prophet Mohammad during the nascent years of the Islamic community (umma) in Medina and on the teachings of the government of the first four Arabic khalifas. This period is generally referred to as a 'Golden Age'.The article describes in detail the di!erent approaches of the Shi'ites and Sunnis to the state and to their ability to change or reform a political system. The author analyses the differences between the model of the Western secular democratic state and the contemporary ideas of Islamists about state functions. In this context the following are examined: the Islamist views on political pluralism, referendum, parliament democracy, the multi-party system, civil society, modernization, the separation of state from religion and the exercise of popular sovereignty generally. Special attention is devoted to aspects related to the implementation of the divine Islamic law (shari'a). The author considers the role of the shari'a in different historical periods. He compares the extreme views of Islamists on the character of internatonal relations with the contemporary non-confrontational approaches of Islamic reformists. Drawing on the programmes of Islamist groups he explains the basic economic and social principles of the Islamic state. The study concludes with a reflection on the causes of the current crisis of secular nation-states in the era of globalization and its impact on the regional situation and on the Euro-Mediterranean Partnerships.

Türkistanlı Bir Düşünür: Ebu Mansur Matüridi: Kimliği, Tarihî Konumu, Fikrî Mücadelesi ve Yöntemi

Ebu Mansûr Mâtürîdî (238- 333 /852-944) İslam düşünce tarihinde özel bir yere sahiptir. O, bir taraftan kelamcıların öncüsü, Müslümanların akaidini yanlışlardan arındıran bilgin, Ehl-i Sünnet anlayışının kurucusu, hidayet meşalesi ve önderi gibi sıfatlarla anılır. Diğer taraftan birçok ilim ve mezhep tarihçisi eserlerinde ona yer vermemiş, hatta takipçileri bazı görüşlerini Eş’arî anlayışa uydurmuşlardır. Mâtürîdî, İmam-ı Azam Ebu Hanife’nin görüşlerini sistemleştiren, varlığı ve hayatı anlamak için yöntem, bilgi kuramı geliştiren, insan tabiatı-akıl, akıl-evren ilişkisini tahlil eden özgün bir İslam bilginidir. Üzeri perdelenmiş ve kırılmaya uğramış olsa da Usûli’d-din âlimleri onun bilgi anlayışını taklit etmişlerdir. Mâtürîdî, zihin darlığı içinde kirlenen ve derin fikri ve ahlaki krizler yaşayan İslam coğrafyasında yeniden keşfedilmekte, kimliği ve ilmi şahsiyeti, görüşleri üzerine çalışmalar yapılmaktadır. Vahşi ihtilafın, insanlık dışı çatışmaların alanı olmaktan çıkmak için İslam’ın bu akılcı ve manevi yorumunu anlamamız gerekmektedir. Bu makale Mâtürîdî’nin hayatı, kimliği ve tarihi bağlamı, fikri konumu ve mücadelesi gibi konuları, ayrıca geliştirdiği bilgi kuramı, insan tabiatı-akıl, akıl-evren ilişkisi meseleleri üzerine yaptığı tahlilleri ele almaktadır. Yine bu makale ile Türkistanlı bir düşünürün tarihi duruma verdiği cevabı tanıtmak, günümüz tartışmalarına katkı sunma potansiyelinin olduğunu göstermek amaçlanmaktadır.

THE ROLE OF THE RULES-BASED INTERNATIONAL ORDER DOCTRINE IN THE FORMATION OF RULES OF LAW: ANALYSIS IN THE CONTEXT OF PROJECTION ON THE NOOSPHERE MODEL

In this article, in the historiographical and legal aspect in the context of projection on a global topological information and noosphere, the authors consider the interaction between the conceptual structural components of the world civilization and legal system, as elements of a single legal triad: "Order-Rules-Law". In the meaningful sense, the terms of the terms "order", "rules" and "law" are the conceptual foundation of the doctrine "Rules-Based International Order" (RBIO), the name of which means "International (world) order based on the rules", and The International System Based on the Rules – The Rule Based International System (RBIS). The study of interactions between the components of the legal triad is of great importance for the study of the processes of formation of rules of law, especially in global systems of public international law and municipal law, as well as in international legal forecasting.
 It is established that the modern balanced state of the IP-structure of the noosphere, according to the model that has historically developed, is a manifestation of the same "order and rules", which were naturally formed in the process of changing the types (forms) of the world order, which are reflected in the triad «Order-rules-rules- Right» that corresponds to the perceptions of Rbis and Rbio. They should be performed to prevent implosion (internal destruction) of the nuclear structure of the Noosphere, timely eliminate tendencies to autarcy entities of the nuclear of the Noosphere in the form of Russia and China, as well as to avoid the threat of complete reformatting of the "Christian world" "Islamic World Order".
 Therefore, for a comprehensive study of the role of RBIO doctrine in the implementation of the rules of law, an objectively necessary is a deep – inclusive analysis of dynamic processes in the triad "Order – Rules – Law". It cannot be carried out without the study of archaic causes and development of public and municipal law, which took place at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries in line with the formation of a global topological double-circuit cone-nuclear information-law structure in the noosphere system. To this end, the authors use the bipolar model of the noosphere developed by them, which with the help of concepts about the topology of the global information and legal space allows to identify natural tendencies and identify natural mechanisms of support for the primate of Anglo-Saxon law on a global scale, in the context of ideas about RBIO and RBIS.
 This methodology is aimed at preserving the sustainable development of world civilization, which in the concept of the model is represented on the one hand: system forming components of the noosphere shell-subjects of international public law in the form of the US Sides-System forming components of the nucleus of the Noosphere: Russia, India and China. This methodology is of particular importance in the conditions of manifestation of tendencies to reformat the IP structure of the noosphere: replacement of the archaic system of the "Christian world order" and its modern form of liberal world order-for "Islamic world order", which requires the correction of value instruments of international public and municipal law, which have historically formed on the basis of traditional concepts of Rbis-Rbio and the Anglo-Saxon law system.

Moderat Islamic Da’wah to Eliminate Islamophobia

Islamophobia is one of the latent problems in many moslem country, including where the majority of the population is Muslim, such as Indonesia. Hatred and fear of Islam, can disturb the harmony in society. This article describes the dangers of Islamophobia, and some strategies which can be taken to handle it. The aims of this study are to explore what are the challenges and opportunities of the Indonesian people regarding these Islamophobia problems. This article uses the theory and concept of Islamophobia. In addition, the concept of discourse popularized by Jurgen Habermas is used to examine the problems. This qualitative study uses a literature approach. Based on the discussion conducted, Islamophobia in Indonesia can permeate the personalities of non-Muslims and Muslims alike. Therefore, efforts are needed to spread an understanding of the true teachings of Islam. Such efforts are the responsibility of all Muslims. One of the ways that can be taken, is echoing Islam rahmatan lil'alamin, spoken and written at every opportunity. Most importantly, practice behavior according to the noble values ​​of Islam in order to represent the goodness of Islam in front of the widest public.
 Keywords: Indonesia, Islam, Islamophobia, compassion, discourse

Gewalt im Namen des Islam: Muslimische Fragen und Antworten

Abstract Distinguishing Islamism from „mainstream,“ non-Islamist Islam is not always an easy task as far as the basic assumptions concerning the nature of Islam and its normative foundations are concerned. It is with regard to strategy in general and the use of violence (especially against Muslims) in particular, that distinctions tend to become sharply drawn. Islamists aim to transform state, society, culture, and law in light of the normative texts of the Qur’an and Sunna, considering the early period of the prophet Muḥammad and his successors (the “pious ancestors”) as the definitive model of an Islamic order. Jihadist Islam pre-dates 9/11 but was propelled into new directions as a result of these acts of violence. The legitimate use of violence, and of Jihad, has always been a contentious issue among Muslims. Significantly, the religious status and affiliation of those involved (Muslims; recognized non-Muslim communities; non-Muslims living beyond the Islamic realm; self-declared Muslims not recognized as such by their enemies) have played a crucial role in these debates. At the core of contention is takfīr, the accusation of unbelief launched against self-declared Muslims, be they Sunni, Shi’i or other. Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966) elaborated the theological underpinnings of takfīr, but it was militant Islamist groups that took the concept to it extremes and put it into practice. Faced with a jihadist logic based on the Qur’an and Sunna, Islamic scholars and Muslim political authorities have propagated the principle of moderation (wasaṭ and wasaṭiyya) as the truly Islamic model of thought and behavior. While wasaṭiyya lacks the emotional and medial resources available to its militant opponents, and while it has been denounced as a strategy of containment employed by the powers-that-be, it seems to have been embraced by broad Muslim audiences.