Ischial Sores Research Articles

Vastus Lateralis and Vastus Intermedius Myocutaneous Flap Reconstruction for Complicated Trochanteric and Ischial Pressure Sores with Extended Girdlestone Resection: A Case Series.

Most paraplegic patients with complicated trochanter sores or ischial sores present with lower limb muscle atrophy. Therefore, in patients who have undergone Girdlestone arthroplasty, filling the dead space and replacing the volume defect through an appropriate surgical technique is extremely challenging. This study presents a case series of vastus lateralis and vastus intermedius myocutaneous flap reconstruction after extended proximal femoral osteotomy in paraplegic patients. The aim of study is to investigate (i) whether sufficient volume replacement was achieved, (ii) whether muscle volume was maintained during long-term follow-up, and (iii) the presence of donor site morbidity. A retrospective review was conducted with eight patients who underwent this method from March 2017 to December 2021. A total of nine flaps was elevated, and the defect was successfully reconstructed without dead space. Computed tomography was performed to identify the changes in thickness and volume of the muscle portion. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was performed to assess the significance of the differences in muscle thickness between pre- and post-measurements. After surgery, all patients healed within 1 month; three patients experienced minor complications. The average follow-up period was 14.5 months, during which only one patient with an ischial pressure ulcer developed wound disruption and recurrence. The average thickness of the rotated muscle was 51.95 mm at 2 to 4 weeks postoperatively and 53.07 mm at 6 months postoperatively (𝑝 = 0.071). All nine cases healed well without major complications. When comparing the volume of the rotated muscle on radiological examinations before and after surgery, no significant differences were observed. Our modified Girdlestone resection technique provides a simple and reliable method for reconstructing complex trochanteric or ischial sores in paraplegic patients. It ensures anatomical consistency, ample volume, and structural stability by leaving the rectus femoris (RF) in place. Careful tension management is required when using this flap in the ischial area.

Hatchet Thigh Flap with Hemi-gluteus Flap for Recurrent Ischial Sore Reconstruction

Background: Ischial pressure sores are the most challenging sores to treat because of associated bursa and high rate of recurrence. Reconstruction flaps originating in the thigh have a disadvantage as movement may increase shear forces, and tension during closure may lead to wound dehiscence. To circumvent these problems, we hereby present a hatchet thigh flap with good mobility, which can be used for recurrent cases as well.Methods: All patients treated at our hospital in the last 5 years for ischial pressure sores were included in the study. The flap is elevated in the subfascial plane from lateral to medial until the medial circumflex artery perforators are revealed. In recurrent cases the lower half of the gluteus maximus muscle is used to fill in the cavity while the flap from the previous surgery is re-advanced.Results: Sixteen patients (11 males and five females) were in the study. The median age of the patient was 54 years (range, 25–82 years). All the flaps survived fully. Two patients had recurrence at three sites, which were successfully reconstructed by advancing the same flap and hemi-gluteus muscle. An average of 6 months follow-up after surgery for recurrence showed stable reconstruction.Conclusion: The hatchet thigh flap is easy to dissect and reliable for ischial pressure sores. It can be used effectively in recurrent cases when combined with hemi-gluteus flaps.

Feasibility of gluteus maximus myocutaneous pedicled flap for presacral pressure sore reconstruction: a simple approach

Background Pressure sore, bed sores, and decubitus ulcer have the same meaning and are used to describe ischemic tissue loss resulting from prolonged pressure over bony prominence. They can develop anywhere in the body, but often are located in the trochanteric, ischial, heel, and sacral areas. Although tissue destruction can occur over areas like the scalp, shoulders, calves, and heels when a patient is lying down, ischial sores occur in wheelchair-bound patients who are sitting, making ‘pressure sore’ the better term. Objectives The purpose of the study is to describe our experience in the management of sacral pressure sore with a gluteus maximus myocutaneous flap, its feasibility and outcome. Patients and methods Our prospective study has been conducted in the Surgery Department of Benha University Hospital from February 2017 to February 2019 on 20 patients treated with a unilateral gluteus maximus myocutaneous flap to reconstruct the presacral defect due to pressure sore and all patients have signed informed consents before they have been involved in this study. Results Gluteus maximus flap in presacral pressure sores is a highly feasible and effective method for the treatment of presacral pressure ulcer defect. It has been associated with short operative time (average 45 min) and small amounts of intraoperative blood loss (average 338 ml), three cases out of 20 showed postoperative hematoma, two cases developed wound dehiscence, two cases developed infection, one case developed partial flap necrosis, four cases developed pigmentation, two cases developed keloid, and only one case developed postoperative recurrence. Conclusion The gluteus maximus myocutaneous flap is a useful, safe, and versatile flap for the repair of presacral decubitus ulcer by a simple approach. It may be recommended as the procedure of choice for surgical treatment of this type of wound.

Rotation advancement V-Y posterior thigh flap combined with a biceps femoris muscle flap for reconstruction of a recurrent ischial pressure sore in pediatric patients

Ischial pressure sores are mostly seen in wheelchair-bound pediatric patients, who are affected by a myelomeningocele, as a result of constant shearing force over the ischial region. The ischial sores are the most difficult to treat with high recurrence rates. Although there are various reconstructive modalities that are described for coverage of ischial pressure sores, there is still a long-term debate on an optimal method of reconstruction. Between April 2017 and June 2019, a total of 6 patients who were affected with a myelomeningocele anomalis were operated on for a total of 7 recurrent grade IV ischial ulcers. Data collection was done through analysis of medical records, which included the patients’ demography, operative details, and postoperative complications. A routine preoperative regimen including correction of the nutrition status and anemia should be ensured. We dissected a biceps femoris muscle turnover flap that obliterated the wound cavity and simultaneously applied a V-Y rotation advancement posterior thigh fasciocutaneous flap for coverage of ischial pressure sore surface. All flaps survived without early complications except for one case (14.2%) where a minor wound dehiscence had occurred and managed by secondary stitches. Among all 7 cases, only one (14.2%) had a recurrence 9 months after surgery, which required further debridement and advancement of the same flap. The mean follow-up period was 12.3 months (range, 4–24 months). Although there is still no ideal flap for closure of ischial pressure sores, the rotation advancement V-Y posterior thigh fasciocutaneous flap combined with a biceps femoris muscle turnover flap is considered a reliable reconstructive technique in pediatric patients. The present technique integrates the benefits of well-vascularized muscle tissue with a durable skin coverage that can be reused in cases of recurrence. Level of evidence: Level V, therapeutic study.

Fasciocutaneous and/or myocutaneous flaps versus perforator flaps: systematic review and meta-analysis for reconstruction of ischial pressure sores

Ischial sores have higher risks of recurrence and considered the most difficult to treat. There are mainly 2 groups of techniques used in ischial pressure sore reconstruction which are as follows: (1) fasciocutaneous and/or myocutaneous flaps (Fc/Mc) and (2) perforator flaps. The aim of this study is to determine the advantages of perforator flaps over Fc and/or Mc flaps in reconstruction of ischial pressure ulcers. All articles published before April 2018 were investigated and searched for eligibility using the databases PubMed and Google Scholar. Eligible studies were determined according to inclusion and exclusion criteria. Recurrence rates, complication rates, and time of recurrences were assessed. A total of 15 studies with 279 patients and 305 flaps were identified and included in the final analysis. The overall recurrence rate of flaps was 6.31 (95% CI, 5.86 to 6.78; p 0.05), complication rates (p > 0.05), and time of recurrences (p > 0.05). Perforator flaps mandate thorough pre-operative preparations, meticulous dissections, and long surgery times. There seem no advantage in applying perforator flaps in ischial pressure sore reconstructions in terms of complications and recurrences. Surgeons may prefer to perform straightforward procedures, such as myocutaneous flaps. Level of evidence: Level IV, risk/prognostic, therapeutic study.

Infragluteal fasciocutaneous flap for management of recurrent ischial pressure sore.

Objective:The objective of the study was to determine the feasibility of infragluteal fasciocutaneous flap in recurrent ischial pressure sore.Materials and Methods:In our study, from 2015 to 2017, nine patients suffering from recurrent ischial sore with scars of previous surgery were managed with infragluteal fasciocutaneous flap. Wound bed was prepared by surgical debridement and negative pressure wound therapy in each case. In two cases, gracilis muscle flap was used as adjuvant to fill up the residual cavity. Donor area of flap was primarily closed.Results:Infragluteal fasciocutaneous flap was used in all nine cases. Superficial distal congestion was present in two cases. Haematoma (1) and infection (1) at flap donor site occurred. Recurrence of ulcer was observed in two cases which were managed by bursectomy and advancement of the bridge segment of the original infragluteal fasciocutaneous flap. All flaps survived without any major complication.Discussion:Ischial pressure sores have a tendency of recurrence after conservative or flap surgery. Scars due to previous surgeries adjacent to the pressure sore preclude the use of local skin or muscle flap. Infragluteal fasciocutaneous flap is a thick reliable fasciocutaneous flap that can be used for resurfacing recurrent ischial pressure sore. This flap has an axial pattern blood supply along with rich subfascial and fascial plexus supplied by various perforators.Conclusion:Infragluteal fasciocutaneous flap is reliable option for managing recurrent ischial sore as it transposes well-vascularised thick fasciocutaneous flap from adjacent posterior thigh and its bridge segment can be further used in case of recurrence.

Lambeau fasciocutané sous fessier fiabilisé par une perforante de l’artère fémorale profonde en reconstruction d’escarre ischiatique

The surgical management of pressure ulcers in the paraplegic or quadriplegic population is marked by the high risk of recurrence in the long-term. In the current era of perforator flaps, newer reconstructive options are available for the management of pressure ulcers, decreasing the need to use the classically described muscular or musculocutaneous locoregional flaps. The coverage of ischial sores described in this article by a pedicled flap based on a deep femoral artery perforator, appears to be an effective first-line reconstructive option for the management of limited size pressure ulcers. A number of fifteen paraplegic or quadriplegic patients having at least one ischial bed sore with underlying osteomyelitis were included in this series. The approximate location of the deep femoral artery perforator was initially identified using the "The Atlas of the perforator arteries of the skin, the trunk and limbs", which was confirmed, with the use of a Doppler device. A fasciocutaneous transposition flap was elevated, with the pivot point based on the cutaneous bridge centered on the perforator, and then transposed to cover the area of tissue loss. The donor site was closed primarily. A total of fifteen patients were operated from November 2015 to November 2016. The series comprised of 16 first presentations of a stage 4 pressure ulcers associated with underlying osteomyelitis that were subsequently reconstructed by the pedicled deep femoral artery perforator flap. The healing rate and functional results were both satisfactory. Fasciocutaneous flap reliable by deep femoral artery perforator appears to have a promising role in the treatment of ischial pressure sores. It is an attractive option to spare the use of musculocutaneous flaps in the area. Thus this flap could be used as a first-line option to cover ischial pressure ulcers of limited size.

Management of a Recurrent Ischial Sore Using a 3-Flap Technique.

Management of a Recurrent Ischial Sore Using a 3-Flap Technique.

Hip Flexion during Intraoperative Insetting of a Perforator Flap for Reconstruction of an Ischial Sore

Hip Flexion during Intraoperative Insetting of a Perforator Flap for Reconstruction of an Ischial Sore

Improving outcomes following reconstruction of pressure sores in spinal injury patients: A multidisciplinary approach

Pressure sore treatment in spinal injury patients is challenging. A multidisciplinary approach with joint management by the plastic surgery and spinal injury teams was initiated at our institution in 2005 to improve patient care and surgical outcomes following reconstruction. This study assessed the surgical outcomes following reconstruction using the team approach and to compare inpatient stay and readmissions for complications before and after the multidisciplinary protocol was introduced. A retrospective review of consecutive patients in the multidisciplinary pressure sore clinic was performed. Data were collected on patient demographics, reconstructive techniques, surgical outcomes and readmission for any complications. In total, 45 patients with 60 pressure sores (grade 3 or 4) were reviewed in the joint clinic between 2005 and 2011. The majority of patients were paraplegic (78%), while the remaining 22% were tetraplegic. Ischial sores were the most common (45%) followed by trochanteric (23%) and sacral (20%) sores. Multiple sores were noted in 44% of patients. Flap reconstruction was required in 32 patients (71%); after a mean follow-up time of 33 months (range 25-72 months), there were three (9%) major complications (two recurrences of pressure sores and one sinus) and seven (22%) minor complications. After introduction of patient care pathways through the multidisciplinary approach, the rate of readmission for complications decreased from 14% to 5.5% and inpatient stay upon readmission reduced from 65 to 45 days. Implementation of a multidisciplinary approach was key to optimising surgical outcomes, achieving a low recurrence rate (6%) and reducing readmissions.

Platelet-rich plasma and simultaneous wound suturing for treatment of ischial pressure sores

The cause of ischial sore is synovial bursa which is made of pressure or shear on the ischial bone. Because of this mechanism, ischial sore often has big subcutaneous pocket compared to its skin defect. To treat this ischial ulcer, complete pocket resection and reconstruction with appropriate flap is the popular way, but we could treat five relapsing ischial sores by applying PRP and direct closing. Ischial sores are often found on the buttock of paraplegia patients who keep sitting on wheel chairs long time. They have high possibility of recurrence of ischial sores as long as using wheel chairs. This method is useful for them because no normal tissues around sore is resected and possibility of using local flaps can be remained when sore relapse.

Treatment of ischial pressure sores with both profunda femoris artery perforator flaps and muscle flaps.

BackgroundReconstruction of ischial pressure sore defects is challenging due to extensive bursas and high recurrence rates. In this study, we simultaneously applied a muscle flap that covered the exposed ischium and large bursa with sufficient muscular volume and a profunda femoris artery perforator fasciocutaneous flap for the management of ischial pressure sores.MethodsWe retrospectively analyzed data from 14 patients (16 ischial sores) whose ischial defects had been reconstructed using both a profunda femoris artery perforator flap and a muscle flap between January 2006 and February 2014. We compared patient characteristics, operative procedure, and clinical course.ResultsAll flaps survived the entire follow-up period. Seven patients (50%) had a history of surgery at the site of the ischial pressure sore. The mean age of the patients included was 52.8 years (range, 18-85 years). The mean follow-up period was 27.9 months (range, 3-57 months). In two patients, a biceps femoris muscle flap was used, while a gracilis muscle flap was used in the remaining patients. In four cases (25%), wound dehiscence occurred, but healed without further complication after resuturing. Additionally, congestion occurred in one case (6%), but resolved with conservative treatment. Among 16 cases, there was only one (6%) recurrence at 34 months.ConclusionsThe combination of a profunda femoris artery perforator fasciocutaneous flap and muscle flap for the treatment of ischial pressure sores provided pliability, adequate bulkiness and few long-term complications. Therefore, this may be used as an alternative treatment method for ischial pressure sores.

Use of Inferior Gluteal Artery and Posterior Thigh Perforators in Management of Ischial Pressure Sores With Limited Donor Sites for Flap Coverage

Reconstructive surgery for ischial pressure sore defects presents a challenge because of high rates of recurrence. The aim of this study was to describe the use of inferior gluteal artery (IGA) and posterior thigh perforators in management of ischial pressure sores with limited donor sites. Between September 2005 and 2009, 11 patients (9 male, 2 female) with ischial sores were operated by using IGA and posterior thigh perforator flaps. The data of patients included age, sex, cause of paraplegia, flap size, perforator of flap, previous surgeries, recurrences, complications, and postoperative follow-up. Nine IGA and 5 posterior thigh perforator flaps were used. Six patients presented with recurrent lesions, 5 patients were operated for sacral and contralateral ischial pressure sores previously. In 2 patients, IGA and posterior thigh perforator flaps were used in combination. Patients were followed for an average of 34.3 months. In 2 recurrent cases, readvancement of IGA perforator flap and gluteus maximus myocutaneous flap were treatment of choice. Treatment of patients with recurrent lesions or multiple pressure sores is challenging because of limited available flap donor sites. In this study, posterior thigh perforator flaps were preferred in patients in whom the previous donor site was the gluteal region. IGA perforator flaps were the treatment of choice in patients for whom posterior thigh region was previously used. Alternately, preserved perforators of previous conventional myocutaneous flaps enabled us to use these perforators in recurrences.

Versatility of perforator sparing buttock rotation flap in repair of pressure sores

Eleven perforator-sparing gluteal fasciocutaneous rotation flaps were used for coverage of pressure sores in 10 patients with mean age 38.4 years. Nine patients were paraplegic, and one patient was ambulatory. All pressure ulcers were classified as grade 4. The pressure sores were sacral in five patients, unilateral ischial in five patients, and unilateral trochantric in one patient. Seven ulcers were recurrent and four were primary. The flap sizes ranged from 7 × 7 cm to 15 × 13 cm. In a total of 11 flaps, nine flaps included two perforators, one flap included three perforators, and one flap included single perforator. Skin incision is the same as that for the conventional gluteal rotation flap. The flap is elevated subfascially until at least two dominant musculocutaneous perforators of the superior or inferior gluteal arteries are encountered. In the recurrent ischial sores, the inferior part of gluteus maximus was used to fill dead space at the base of the ulcer as a separate muscle flap. Eight of 11 flaps healed uneventfully without complications. Mean follow-up period was 18.6 months (range 37–5 months). The recurrence rate in the same region was 0% during follow-up period. The appearances of pressure sores in other sites occurred in two patients that healed with conservative treatment. There was no major complication such as total flap necrosis. Only minor complications occurred which were treated without surgical intervention. The perforator-sparing gluteal rotation fasciocutaneous flap is a versatile and reliable flap for coverage of all gluteal pressure sores. This is an ideal flap for patients in whom the risk of ulcer recurrence is high as the rerotation is possible in case of recurrence.

Stratégie chirurgicale pour le traitement des escarres ischiatiques : quelles options ? quels résultats ?

Ischiatic pressure sores are frequent in spinal cord injury patients, associated with bad prognosis and high recurrence rate. Many surgical techniques were described, including surgical debridement followed by pedicled flap coverage. We aim to propose a practical decision tree for primary or secondary ischial pressure sore treatment. Our series of 48operated ischial sores with an average follow up of 4 years (range 2 to 8years) is analyzed and compared to previously published reports. Surgical techniques are discussed according to their specific indications. The optimal recurrence rate in published reports about pressure sore treatment is 20%; a rate inferior to 19% is found in our series, showing the equal importance of flap selection and postoperative care and education. Depending on each situation, various available flaps are described and compared: gluteus maximus flap, biceps femoris flap, gracilis flap, tensor fascia lata flap, fasciocutaneous thigh flaps, rectus femoris and vastus lateralis flap, rectus abdominis flap. Specific surgical indications for more extensive wounds are studied: resection arthroplasty of the hip, hip disarticulation, fillet flaps from the leg, microsurgery. Based upon our experience, a decision tree summarizes our proposition of flap selection, depending on the wound size and the patient background.

The island pedicled anterolateral thigh (pALT) flap via the lateral subcutaneous tunnel for recurrent ischial ulcers

Chronic recurrent ischial sores are an important cause of morbidity in paraplegics and geriatric patients. Compared to sacral and trochanteric ulcers, ischial sores are the most difficult to treat, with a low success rate following conservative therapy and a high recurrence rate after surgical treatment. We report the use of the pedicled anterolateral thigh (pALT) flap for reconstruction of a chronic ischial sore. The free ALT flap has an established role in reconstruction in the head and neck and extremities. However, there are few reports concerning its clinical applications for regional reconstruction. As a pedicled flap, it has been used in the primary reconstruction of the perineum, groin, anterior abdominal wall, thigh and ischium. We present the first reported case of a paraplegic man with a recurrent ischial sore treated successfully with an island pALT flap inset via a lateral subcutaneous approach. We discuss the indications and its role as a simple and reliable secondary reconstructive option in the treatment of recurrent ischial ulcers after first-line loco-regional surgical options have been exhausted.

Application of skin traction for surgical treatment of grade IV pressure sore: a clinical report of 160 cases

Retrospective clinical study. To assess the method of primary surgical closure of pressure sores developed by the Ruixin Hospital for burns. Nanjing, China. The study included 235 grade IV pressure sores of 160 patients, M:F = 119:41. Their age ranged from 19 to 93 years (mean = 47.4, s.d. ± 15.7). The primary disease was spinal cord injury in 141 patients (88.1%). The location of sore spread over ischial, sacrococcygeal and trochanteric regions. The largest pressure sore measured 15 × 25 cm(2). The time from onset of sore to admission ranged from 3 months to 22 years (mean = 35.5 months, s.d. ± 55.8). Local preoperative preparation included external skin traction using adhesive tapes, wound cleaning and change of dressing. General condition was checked and improved by supportive measures. Operation procedures included thorough debridement, excision of hidden minor scars, mobilizing opposing skin flaps and meticulous haemostasis before closure. Skin traction continued after the operation until the wound was healed. All but 10 sores healed primarily. These 10 sores healed after a revision. The length of stay in hospital ranged from 20 to 140 days (mean = 45.1 days, s.d. ± 21.1). Follow-up period was 2-51 months (mean = 22 months, s.d. ± 12.5). Two ischial sores recurred owing to long sitting. They were cured with the same method. Three illustrative cases are presented. The method is simple and enjoys a high success rate with a short stay in hospital and hence is cost effective. The recurrence is rare.

Long-term Outcome of Using Posterior-thigh Fasciocutaneous Flaps for the Treatment of Ischial Pressure Sores

Among the many difficult problems presented by patients with spinal cord injuries, management of ischial pressure ulcers remains challenging for reconstructive surgeons. This study describes the long-term outcome of using posterior-thigh fasciocutaneous flaps for the treatment of ischial pressure sores. Between January 1999 and June 2003, 12 patients with ischial sores were enrolled in this study. All the patients underwent early aggressive surgical debridement followed by surgical reconstruction with a laterally based posterior-thigh fasciocutaneous flap. The follow-up period ranged from 24 months to 97 months (mean, 62 months). All the flaps survived, and there were no partial flap losses. Primary-wound healing occurred in all the cases. In two patients, Grade II ischial pressure sores recurred 24 months and 27 months after the operation. There was no recurrence in the other 10 patients. The posterior-thigh fasciocutaneous pedicled flap was a good method for treating ischial bed sores. This flap could be used to treat recurrences observed after primary bed-sore treatment with other methods. The flap was easy to raise, and it did not cause any donor-site morbidity. The long-term outcome of using posterior-thigh fasciocutaneous flaps for the treatment of ischial pressure sores was generally good.

Treatment of Ischial Pressure Sores With Double Adipofascial Turnover Flaps

Despite a variety of flap reconstruction options, the ischium remains the most difficult pressure sore site to treat. This article describes the authors' successful surgical procedure for coverage of ischial ulcers using double adipofascial turnover flaps.After debridement, the adipofascial flaps are harvested both cephalad and caudal to the defect. The flaps are then turned over to cover the exposed bone in a manner so as to overlap the 2 flaps. The skin is then closed with sutures in 2 layers. A total of 15 patients with ischial sores were treated using this surgical procedure.The follow-up period ranged from 11 to 159 months, with a mean of 93.6 months. Overall, 86.7% of the flaps (13 of 15) healed primarily. One patient had a recurrent grade II ischial pressure sore again 11 months after the operation. The other 14 patients did not have a recurrence.Treatment of ischial pressure sores with adipofascial turnover flaps provides an easy, minimally invasive procedure, with preservation of future flap options, and a soft-tissue supply sufficient for covering the bony prominence and filling dead space. This technique is a reliable and safe reconstructive modality for the management of minor ischial pressure sores.

Treatment of Ischial Pressure Sores Using a Modified Gracilis Myofasciocutaneous Flap

Despite the availability of a variety of flap reconstruction options, ischial pressure sores continue to be the most difficult pressure sores to treat. This article describes a successful surgical procedure for the coverage of ischial ulcers using a modified gracilis myofasciocutaneous flap. From August 2000 to April 2004, 12 patients with ischial sores were enrolled in the study. All patients underwent early aggressive surgical debridement followed by surgical reconstruction with a modified gracilis myofasciocutaneous flap. The follow-up period ranged from 13 to 86 months, with a mean of 44 months. Overall, 91.7% of the flaps (11 of 12) survived primarily. Partial flap necrosis occurred in one patient. Primary wound healing occurred without complications at both the donor and recipient sites in all cases. In one patient, grade II ischial pressure sores recurred 13 months after the operation. There was no recurrence in other 11 patients. A modified gracilis myofasciocutaneous flap provides a good cover for ischial pressure sores. Because it is easy to use and has favorable results, it can be used in the primary treatment for large and deep ischial pressure sores.