Irritation Of Upper Respiratory Tract Research Articles

Ethylenediamine. Determination in workplace air with high performance liquid chromatography – spectrophotometric technique

Ethylenediamine (EDA) is a colorless, viscous liquid with ammonia-like odor. It is used as an intermediate in manufacture of chelating agents (EDTA), fungicide, poliamide and formaldehyde-urea resins, surfactants, corrosion inhibitors, emulsifying agents and stabiliser of rubber products. EDA may cause irritation of upper respiratory tract, eye and skin. Occupational exposure to EDA may lead to alergic reactions and asthma. EDA is not classified as carcinogennic to humans. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a sensitive method for determining hydrazine concentrations in the workplace air in the range from 1/10 to 2 MAC values, in accordance with the requirements of Standard No. PN-EN 482. The study was performed using a liquid chromatograph with spectrophotometric detection. All chromatographic analysis were performed with Supelcosil LC-18 (150 × 3 mm, 5 µm) analytical column, which was eluted with mixture of acetonitrile and water (6:4 v/v). The method is based on the collection of EDA on silica gel impregnated with sulfuric acid, extraction with mixture of acetonitrile and water (62:38 v/v), derivatization of extracted compound with 9-fluorenylmethyl chloroformate and chromatographic determination of resulted solution with HPLC technique. The method is linear (r = 0.9994) within the investigated working range 0.1–2 μg/ml (2–40 mg/m3 for a 10-L air sample). Calculated limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 0.04 μg/ml and 0.13 μg/ml, respectively. The average extraction efficiency of EDA from silica gel was 86% and samples stored in refrigerator are stable for 10 days. The analytical method described in this paper enables determination of EDA in workplace air. The method is precise, accurate and it meets the criteria for procedures for measuring chemical agents listed in Standard No. PN-EN 482. The method can be used for assessing occupational exposure to EDA and associated risk to workers’ health. The developed method of determining EDA has been recorded as an analytical procedure (see Appendix). This article discusses the problems of occupational safety and health, which are covered by health sciences and environmental engineering.

O-Toluidine. Documentation of proposed values of occupational exposure limits (OELs)

o-Toluidine is a substance produced in large amounts and used in rubber, dyeing and pharmaceutical industries and in the production of herbicide and other chemical compounds. The estimated number of people occupationally exposed to o-toluidine in EU is 5500, half of them is employed in chemical industry in the production of chemical fibers and rubber products. In the conditions of occupational exposure, o-toluidine is absorbed by skin and by inhalation. Regardless of route of exposure this compound is excreted in urine. The effects of acute inhalation exposure to high concentrations (>25 mg/m3) of o-toluidine are irritation of upper respiratory tract, irritation of eyes and skin, which is manifested by face, eyes and pharynx burning, cough, shortness of breath, weakness, nausea, vomit, headache and dizziness, tinnitus, methemoglobinemia, hematuria and hemorrhagic cystitis. In epidemiological studies, the mostly analyzed group of substances was aromatic amines (including o-toluidine). Available data mainly refer to exposure in dyeing and rubber industries. Described effects of chronic exposure are methemoglobinemia, hematuria and damage of bladder epithelium leading to malignant tumor of this organ. Carcinogenicity of o-toluidine was confirmed in tests on experimental animals, including rats and mice. Oral exposure to o-toluidine results in bladder cancer, primarily in female rats, to a lesser extent in male rats. In female rats F344 exposed to o-toluidine with feed, increase of the incidence of cancer from the bladder transitional cells was observed. Furthermore, in mice and rats fibromas and fibrosarcomas in subcutaneous tissue, angiomas and angiosarcomas in abdominal cavity and bladder, mesotheliomas of various organs, angiosarcomas in various organs, hepatocellular carcinomas and adenomas were observed. In experimental animals, o-toluidine exhibits moderate acute toxicity, LD50 values for intragastric administration are within the range 670–2951 mg/kg bw. In acute toxicity studies, rats exposed by inhalation to o-toluidine had cyanosis, contractions and muscle tremor, difficulty in breathing, red-brown rhinorrhea, corneal opacification, body weight loss, body temperature decrease, lethargy and extreme exhaustion. The effects of subchronic and chronic exposure of experimental animals to o-toluidine described in the literature include changes in the spleen, hematopoietic system, kidneys and bladder. Most of the mutagenicity tests in bacterial systems do not confirm mutagenicity of o-toluidine. A few works only described positive test result after metabolic activation. Both in vitro and in vivo studies confirmed induction of DNA damage by o-toluidine. o-Toluidine has harmonized classification in the EU as a category 1B carcinogen with assigned phrase H350 – may cause cancer. SCOEL experts classified it to group A of carcinogens, which means carcinogens with genotoxic properties. In Germany, DFG has ranked o-toluidine into category 1 of carcinogens, so substances that cause cancer in humans and substances that are believed to significantly affect the risk of cancer. IARC classified it into group 1, compounds with confirmed human carcinogenicity. On the basis of a quantitative assessment of the risk of cancer as a result of occupational exposure, it has been estimated that at a 40-year exposure period to o-toluidine at a concentration of 1 mg/m3, the additional risk of bladder cancer ranges from 2.4–3.1 · 10-4 (depending on the estimation method). The values of the determining exposure limits of o-toluidine applicable in the EU member states and in the world are 0.5–0.9 mg/m3; 4.5–8.8 mg/m3 and 22 mg/m3. In Poland, the applicable OEL value is 3 mg/m3. In SCOEL, no BOELV had been proposed, considering o-toluidine as a genotoxic carcinogen. Directive 2017/2398 of the European Parliament and of the Council (EU) of 12 December 2017 amending Directive 2004/37/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens at work, a concentration of 0.5 mg/m3 was adopted (0.1 ppm) as a binding value for o-toluidine (based on socio-economic analysis, environmental risk assessment and risk of bladder cancer in professionally exposed workers). It has been proposed to reduce the OEL value of o-toluidine to 0.5 mg/m3, which will affect a nearly tenfold reduction in the risk of bladder cancer workers. In addition, according to CSI (Chief Sanitary Inspectorate) data in Poland, no exposure to o-toluidine in concentrations >3 mg/m3 and >1.5 mg/m3 (0.5 OEL values) have been found in years 2015–2016, while in conditions of exposure to concentrations from within the range of 0.3–1.5 mg/m3 (0.1 ÷ 0.5 of the OEL value), a dozen or so people only worked. There is no basis for determining the short-term exposure limit value (STEL). As a value of biological exposure index (BEI) of o-toluidine, it has been proposed to leave 2% level of the MetHb in the blood. The standard was labeled “skin” (the absorption of substances through the skin may be as important as in inhalation) and “Carc. 1B” (carcinogenic substance of category 1B).

No short-term cytogenetic consequences of Hungarian red mud catastrophe

Red mud is an industrial waste produced in the process of alumina extraction from bauxite with concentrated NaOH. When the red mud-containing reservoir collapsed in Ajka Alumina Plant Hungary in October 2010, the most serious immediate effects were caused by the high alkalinity (pH ≥ 13) of the flood. Many persons suffered burn-like damage to tissues and contact with caustic desiccated ultra-fine dust with traces of toxic metals also caused irritation of upper respiratory tract and eyes. This catastrophe was unique from the point of view of genotoxic effects as well. Therefore cytogenetic examinations were carried out on inhabitants, either with burns (17 persons) or on those inhaling desiccated caustic dust (42 persons). Chromosomal aberration (CA) analysis and bleomycin (BLM)-sensitivity assays, as possible markers of effects, were studied in peripheral blood lymphocytes of persons within 4-6 weeks following the catastrophe. Controls were matched for age, sex and smoking habits, and also places of residence with different constituents of air pollution either from rural (59 persons), or from urban environments (59 persons). Neither spontaneous rate of CAs (1.47% vs. 1.69%) nor BLM-induced in vitro chromosomal breakage (0.79 vs. 0.83 break/cell) showed elevated rates when cytogenetic biomarkers of genotoxicity were compared between controls and exposed persons. Time spent in cleaning did not affect cytogenetic changes either (R(2) = 0.04). BLM-induced mutagen sensitivity was similar in exposed and control persons (27.1% vs. 30.5%). It seems that the red mud exposure does not appear to pose an immediate genotoxic hazard on residents when measured with cytogenetic methods. We recommend, however, that those involved in clean-up activities should be followed closely not only for overall health, but also for further genotoxic risk assessment, because the long-term hazards of ultra-fine fugitive dust particles with alkalinity of residual NaOH in red mud are still unknown.

Sensory irritation effects of n-propanol and ethylbenzene after pretreatment with capsaicin or indomethacin.

Irritation of upper respiratory tract (sensory irritation) due to two model solvents, ethylbenzene and propanol, were investigated from their reflex-induced decrease in respiratory rate in mice. Intranasal application of capsaicin decreased the sensory irritation response of both solvents, indicating that at least part of the sensory irritation effect must occur as a result of activation of capsaicin sensitive afferent nerves. The vehicle used for the application of capsaicin in itself decreased the respiratory rate strongly, either caused by effects on the upper respiratory tract or on the lungs. This demonstrates the need for a formulation of a pharmacologically inactive vehicle for nasal application of lipophilic substances. Pretreatment with indomethacin had no influence on sensory irritation of any of the solvents. This suggests that sensory irritation is caused by a direct interaction between receptors on the trigeminal nerves and the vapours rather than being an indirect effect of tissue damage giving rise to metabolites from the cyclooxygenase pathway.