Irrigation Usage Research Articles

Water Conservation Potential of Landscape Irrigation Smart Controllers

In the past ten years, smart irrigation controllers have been developed by a number of manufacturers and have been promoted by water purveyors in an attempt to reduce excessive irrigation. Legislation has been introduced in California and Texas and passed in Florida mandating or incentivizing the use of these controllers. As a result of the interest in smart controllers, their use is increasing in new installations and retrofits of residential and light commercial irrigation systems. A number of controlled research studies using formal experimental design and statistical analyses indicate substantial water savings of anywhere from 40% to more than 70% when using these devices; however, real-world savings in larger pilot-scale projects indicate savings of typically less than 10%. Reasons for the divergence between the apparent potential savings and the realized savings in pilot projects are related to the lack of: targeting of high irrigation users (on either a relative or absolute scale), education for contractors and end users, and timely follow-up to assess water savings. In addition, much of the scientific research on smart controllers has been conducted in humid regions where higher potential savings are likely due to irrigation needed only to supplement rainfall. Future pilot projects should include comprehensive educational components aimed at irrigation sites with potential irrigation savings based on estimated landscape irrigation demand from climatic variables (i.e., high irrigation users).

Rice cutgrass growth as affected by simulated flooding and water nitrogen concentration under greenhouse conditions

Practical challenges exist in minimizing the ecological impact of conventional agricultural systems, which often depend upon the intense usage of irrigation and agrochemicals in order to maximize the level of food production. Significant amounts of nitrogen fertilizer is lost and transported into drainage ditches. Increasingly, research has focused on the efficacy of plants to mitigate and diffuse agricultural runoff in drainage ditches to better manage and protect fresh water. By assessing plant responses, we will gain a better understanding of specific services a particular species may offer as a buffer plant. The objective of this greenhouse study was to determine the growth and physiological responses of a ditch plant, rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides), to a range of flooding and nitrogen input regimes, in order to gain a better understanding of why this species is well adapted to ditch environments. The experiment was a complete 3 × 3 factorial design with three levels of flooding intensity and three levels of nitrogen addition in the form of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3-N). Each treatment was replicated 15 times for 135 plants total. The study was terminated six weeks after flooding treatment initiation. Plants were able to modify their physiological responses in order to withstand environmental stress. When grown in partially flooded conditions, individuals produced more aboveground (37.52% and 38.42%) and belowground biomass (48.05% and 87.81%), compared to other treatments (control and continuously flooded, respectively). There was a 58.5% and 30.1% increase in shoot-to-root ratio as both flooding and aqueous nitrogen concentration increased. The increased productivity of rice cutgrass in partially flooded treatments and its capacity to survive increased nitrogen concentrations may explain the persistence of this species in agricultural ditches.

Assessing Metallic Toxicity of Wastewater for Irrigation in Some Industrial Areas of Bangladesh

BACKGROUND: Wastewaters were collected from 25 sites of two industrial areas of Mymensingh and Gazipur in Bangladesh to assess metallic toxicity of wastewater for irrigation usage. METHODS AND RESULTS: The analyzed wastewaters were slightly alkaline to alkaline in nature and were problematic for irrigation except 3 samples. As per TDS values, 9 samples were rated as fresh water and the rest 16 were classified as brackish water. EC and SAR reflected that all samples were medium salinity (C2), high salinity (C3), very high salinity (C4) and low alkalinity (S1) hazard classes expressed as C2S1, C3S1 and C4S1. Wastewaters of different industries were graded as excellent, good, permissible and doubtful for irrigation purpose as per SSP. According to hardness (HT), wastewater were under moderately hard, hard and very hard classes. Cd, Cr and Cu ions were treated as toxicant for irrigating soils and crops. Zn was problematic for long-term irrigation. The concentrations of Pb, Fe and Na were far below the toxic levels. Synergistic relationships were observed between pH-EC, pH-TDS, EC-TDS, SAR-SSP and SSP-hardness. CONCLUSION(s): If wastewater is applied for irrigation due to the fresh water shortage, it can contaminate soil due to some toxic metal ions.

Suitability Analysis of Groundwater Quality for Domestic and Irrigation Usage in Yamuna Nagar District, India: A GIS Approach

The main source to fulfill the enormous needs of water both for domestic and agricultural purposes in the densely cultivated region of Yamuna Nagar district of Haryana (India) is the water under earth. Since enough quantity of good quality water has been readily available, the water quality concerns are often neglected. In the present study analysis of the geochemical characteristics of groundwater to assess its suitability for domestic and irrigation purposes has been done. Fifty-five samples were collected in the months of June (pre-monsoon) and October (post-monsoon) from the bore wells. These samples were analysed for various parameters and were compared with various national and international standards to determine the suitability of water for domestic and irrigation use. The thematic maps for hydrogen ion concentration (pH), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), electric conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), percent sodium (Na%) and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) were prepared in GIS environment. These maps were further classified as per given standards to study the spatial variations of quality parameters and their suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes. Investigations revealed that groundwater in general was hard for domestic use. However it was within the safe limits for drinking. Furthermore groundwater quality was well within the desirable to permissible limits for irrigation purpose.

Sedimentation of helminth eggs in water

Helminth parasite eggs in low quality water represent health risks when used for irrigation of crops. The settling velocities of helminth eggs (Ascaris suum, Trichuris suis, and Oesophagostomum spp.) and wastewater particles were experimentally determined in tap water and in wastewater using Owen tubes. The settling velocities of eggs in tap water was compared with theoretical settling velocities calculated by Stoke’s law using measurements of size and density of eggs as well as density and viscosity of tap water. The mean settling velocity in tap water of 0.0612mms−1 found for A. suum eggs was significantly lower than the corresponding values of 0.1487mms−1 for T. suis and 0.1262mms−1 for Oesophagostomum spp. eggs. For T. suis and Oesophagostomum spp. eggs the theoretical settling velocities were comparable with the observed velocities in the Owen tubes, while it was three times higher for A. suum eggs. In wastewater, the mean settling velocity for A. suum eggs (0.1582mms−1) was found to be different from T. suis (0.0870mms−1), Oesophagostomum spp. (0.1051mms−1), and wastewater particles (0.0474mms−1). This strongly indicates that in low quality water the eggs are incorporated into particle flocs with different settling velocities and that the settling velocity of eggs and particles is closely associated. Our results document that there is a need to differentiate the sedimentation of different types of helminth eggs when assessing the quality of low quality water, e.g. for irrigation usage. The results can also be used to improve existing models for helminth egg removal.

Antibiotic Patterns with Inflatable Penile Prosthesis Insertion

A clear set of guidelines has not been defined in the use of antibiotics in penile prosthesis implantation. Aim. We surveyed urologists throughout the United States to determine current practice patterns regarding antibiotic use in primary and revision penile prosthesis surgery. Fifty-two Sexual Medicine Society of North America (SMS) member urologist and 164 non-SMS member urologist responses were obtained. The survey contained 10 questions regarding antibiotic selection for primary and revision inflatable penile prosthesis (IPP) implantation. One hundred percent of responders in both groups utilize intraoperative antibiotics, most commonly vancomycin and gentamicin in both groups. Of SMS members, 94% prescribed postoperative home oral antibiotics in contrast to 88% of non-SMS members (P = 0.3). Among SMS members, the most common antibiotic prescribed postoperatively was levofloxacin 500 mg daily while among non-SMS members, the most common antibiotic postoperatively was cephalexin 500 mg 2-4 times daily. Of SMS members, antibiotic irrigation intraoperatively occurred with 100% and with 92% of non-SMS members (P = 0.04). Thirty-seven percent SMS physicians and 15% non-SMS physicians made modifications of intraoperative and postoperative antibiotics for high-risk patients (P = 0.001). In the circumstance of revision of a clinically noninfected IPP, 23% SMS and 16% non-SMS member physicians utilized additional antibiotics/treatment (P = 0.3). Sixteen of those surveyed admitted that they had been approached by their institution about their antibiotic use and asked to change. In the past 5 years, 29% surveyed have changed their practice patterns in antibiotic use. There is significant difference between practice patterns of SMS and non-SMS urologists in terms of antibiotic irrigation usage, modifications for high-risk patients, and consensus about the importance of antibiotic use with Coloplast Titan implant (Coloplast, Minneapolis, MN, USA). A significant lack of uniformity exists among urologists performing prosthetic surgery with regard to antibiotic protocols. A standard set of guidelines may prove useful to implanters.

Participatory system for water management in the Toyogawa Irrigation Project, Japan

In principle, participatory irrigation management (PIM) means the involvement of irrigation users in all aspects at all levels of irrigation management. In practice, all over the world efforts are being made to realize the principles. However, in the execution of PIM, role sharing between farmers and government is a serious problem, and thus a clear method and ideas are needed to improve PIM. In particular, a broad discussion of role sharing is demanded. This article illustrates how the Japanese way of role sharing in PIM is realized based on the case of the Toyogawa Irrigation Project. Organizationally, the project is jointly managed by five entities, including both the public sector and the farmers’ organizations. These entities have clearly divided their functional roles, with the ultimate decision power in all aspects of irrigation management given to organized farmers. The power is realized either directly or through the land improvement districts’ representative system depending on the levels of the irrigation system. The public entity provides coordination support to create a transparent forum of discussion together with scientific information for farmers’ understanding and decision making. The participatory institutional line-up of this project enables the upland areas that suffered periodically from water deficits.

Geographical Information System Techniques for Evaluation of Groundwater Quality

Problem statement: The present paper tries to assess groundwater suit ability for irrigation purpose in Damghan plain (5400 ha). Approach: Twenty four water samples were collected from the active wells. Parameters such as Electrical Conduct ivity (EC), pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), were recorded in the field and major anions and cations (Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K + , Na + , CO3 2- , HCO 3- , Cl - , SO4 2- and NO 3- ) were analyzed in the laboratory. The data of wate r wells were imported into the GIS software and the different water quality maps were produced usin g point data. Then Suitability index of groundwater quality determined by overlaying of water quality m aps. Results: Suitability index values revealed that the ground water in Amin Abad, Abdi, Abd Abad, Nasr Abad and parts of Shams Abad villages of study area had Suitable quality with the suitability in dex range between 75-100 and therefore can be used for irrigation usage. Suitability index of the groundwa ter in Hasnie, Gani Abad and parts of Shams Abad villages were Moderate quality with the range bet ween 35-70 and Abas Abad, Abir Abad and Shaman villages had unsuitable quality and cannot be use d for irrigation purposes. In respect of all evalua ting criteria, villages of study areas that had Suitabl e and Moderate quality could safely be used for long- term irrigation purposes. Conclusion: The present study demonstrated high efficiency for GIS to analyze complex spatial data and groundwater quality suitab ility.

Evaluation of groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural use in Thanjavur city, Tamil Nadu, India

As groundwater is a vital source of water for domestic and agricultural activities in Thanjavur city due to lack of surface water resources, groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural usage were evaluated. In this study, 102 groundwater samples were collected from dug wells and bore wells during March 2008 and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, temperature, major ions, and nitrate. Results suggest that, in 90% of groundwater samples, sodium and chloride are predominant cation and anion, respectively, and NaCl and CaMgCl are major water types in the study area. The groundwater quality in the study site is impaired by surface contamination sources, mineral dissolution, ion exchange, and evaporation. Nitrate, chloride, and sulfate concentrations strongly express the impact of surface contamination sources such as agricultural and domestic activities, on groundwater quality, and 13% of samples have elevated nitrate content (>45 mg/l as NO(3)). PHREEQC code and Gibbs plots were employed to evaluate the contribution of mineral dissolution and suggest that mineral dissolution, especially carbonate minerals, regulates water chemistry. Groundwater suitability for drinking usage was evaluated by the World Health Organization and Indian standards and suggests that 34% of samples are not suitable for drinking. Integrated groundwater suitability map for drinking purposes was created using drinking water standards based on a concept that if the groundwater sample exceeds any one of the standards, it is not suitable for drinking. This map illustrates that wells in zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 are not fit for drinking purpose. Likewise, irrigational suitability of groundwater in the study region was evaluated, and results suggest that 20% samples are not fit for irrigation. Groundwater suitability map for irrigation was also produced based on salinity and sodium hazards and denotes that wells mostly situated in zones 2 and 3 are not suitable for irrigation. Both integrated suitability maps for drinking and irrigation usage provide overall scenario about the groundwater quality in the study area. Finally, the study concluded that groundwater quality is impaired by man-made activities, and proper management plan is necessary to protect valuable groundwater resources in Thanjavur city.

The impact of small-scale irrigation on household food security: The case of Filtino and Godino irrigation schemes in Ethiopia

Ethiopia’s irrigation potential is estimated at 3.7 million hectare, of which only about 190,000 ha (4.3% of the potential) is actually irrigated. There is little information on the extent to which the so far developed irrigation schemes have been effective in meeting their stated objectives of attaining food self-sufficiency and eradicating poverty. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to identify the impact of small-scale irrigation on household food security based on data obtained from 200 farmers in Ada Liben district of Ethiopia in 2006. The resulting data was analyzed using Heckman’s Two-step Estimation procedure. Studies elsewhere revealed that access to reliable irrigation water can enable farmers to adopt new technologies and intensify cultivation, leading to increased productivity, overall higher production, and greater returns from farming. Our study findings confirm some of these claims. In the study area about 70% of the irrigation users are food secure while only 20% of the non-users are found to be food secure. Access to small scale irrigation enabled the sample households to grow crops more than once a year; to insure increased and stable production, income and consumption; and improve their food security status. The study concludes that small-scale irrigation significantly contributed to household food security.

Result of subsoil irrigation research of alfalfa grown for green feed in Volgo-Akhtubinskaya flood plant

Relevance of subsoil irrigation usage for growing feed crops on alluvial meadow soils is shown. Distribution of pjezometric pressure, along the water emitter line during the irrigating period, is analyzed. Formation of moisture patterns in the soil regarding the quantities of irrigating water and emitters design are considered. In order to define the characteristics of moisture patterns in the soil, depending on the quantities of irrigating water, the ratios of vertical water spreading Kv and forms Kf are calculated. Expediency of usage low irrigating rates is substantiated. As a result of research, mathematical relations were derived in order to define water outlays in the emitters made of pottery tubes with diameter 50 mm under water pressure at the line 0.1?0.7 m. It is determined that usage of subsoil irrigation allows increase of commercial crop harvest, significantly save water resources, labour and energy comparing to sprinkling.

Application of Biocoagulant on Drinking Water Treatment

A biocoagulant developed by the writers and called Bio-CoA was used to treat the turbid water in a bench-scale reactor as well as in a large pilot plant. The water quality after Bio-CoA treatment was compared to that treated by the traditional chemical coagulant, PACl. Although both Bio-CoA and PACl perform well in turbidity removal, Bio-CoA prevails over PACl since it removes suspended solids from turbid water with no changes in aluminum, pH, and conductivity of the effluent. In other words, Bio-CoA can be applied to drinking water treatment without any health concerns even under a high dosing condition. Meanwhile, with Bio-CoA application no alkali is required to neutralize the resulting low-pH water as is required for PACl, and the water after Bio-CoA treatment has a higher potential for extra pure water preparation and irrigation usage based on the lower conductivity of the effluent. Bio-CoA and the related treatment process can be used as a pretreament unit to reduce the turbidity of the superturbid water to a tolerable concentration for present drinking water treatment plants, which may overcome the water-offering deficiency during typhoon periods.

水利システムの利水機能と多面的機能の連携的評価法

In many cases, each function of a irrigation system is discussed individually heretofore. However, if we changed parameters of the works position and water velocity, not only irrigation usage using but also other functions were changed. Therefore, it becomes importance to evaluate each function simultaneously. So in this research , at first We make the GIS database of irrigation canal system, secondary make diagnonise figure to recognise qualitive charactor ,thirdly make the evaluation of the qualitative analysis of each function This evaluation methods is effective to decide system function including regional residents.

Water trading at the margin: The evolution of water markets in the Murray‐Darling Basin

Water trading in Australia is enabled by much historical institutional development, which had other objectives at the time that it was implemented. After 2 decades of institutional reform to enable water markets in the Murray Darling Basin, active markets are reallocating surface water entitlements among irrigation users. However, permanent water trading is currently limited in terms of the volume traded and reallocation among uses. Given these limitations, this paper seeks to assess the success of surface water markets in the Murray‐Darling Basin by comparing current practice against the six desirable characteristics for water markets suggested by Howe et al. (1986). Overall, it is argued that, despite the relatively low rate of reallocation, the market performs well against most criteria but that ongoing evolution of institutional arrangements is critical for improved success.

Trends and Variability in U.S. Corn Yields Over the Twentieth Century

AbstractThe United States is currently responsible for 40%–45% of the world’s corn supply and 70% of total global exports [the U.S. Department of Agriculture–National Agricultural Statistics Service (USDA–NASS)]. Therefore, analyses of the spatial and temporal patterns of historical U.S. corn yields might provide insight into future crop-production potential and food security. In this study, county-level maize yield data from 1910 to 2001 were used to characterize the spatial heterogeneity of yield growth rates and interannual yield variability across the U.S. Corn Belt.Widespread decadal-scale changes in corn yield variability and yield growth rates have occurred since the 1930s across the Corn Belt, but the response has varied substantially with geographic location. Northern portions of the Great Plains have experienced consistently high interannual corn yield variability, averaging 30%–40% relative to the mean. Increasing usage of irrigation in Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, since the 1950s, has helped boost yields by 75%–90% over rain-fed corn, creating a yield gap of 2–4 T ha−1 between irrigated and nonirrigated corn that could potentially be exploited in other regions. Furthermore, irrigation has reduced interannual variability by a factor of 3 in these same regions. A small region from eastern Iowa into northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin has experienced minimal interannual yield variability, averaging only 6%–10% relative to mean yields.This paper shows that the choice of time period used for statistical analysis impacted conclusions drawn about twentieth-century trends in corn yield variability. Widespread increases in yield variability were apparent from 1950 onward, but were not significant over the entire 1930–2001 period. There is also evidence that yield variability decreased from the early 1990s to 2001. Corn yield growth rates peaked at an annual-average rate of 3%–5% in the 1960s (124.5 kg ha−1 yr−1), but have steadily declined to a relative rate of 0.78% yr−1 (49.2 kg ha−1 yr−1) during the 1990s. A general inverse relationship between increasing corn yield and decreasing yield growth rates was noted after county-level yields reached 4 T ha−1, suggesting that widespread, significant increases in corn yield are not likely to take place in the future, particularly on irrigated land, without a second agricultural revolution.

Reed Beds for the Remediation and Recycling of Nursery Runoff Water

The water reform process of recent years has brought about dramatic regulatory changes regarding the access to, and pollution of, water resources in Australia. This has caused intensive irrigation users, such as the nursery and greenhouse industries, to look for ways of reducing both the quantity of water used and the discharge of nutrient-laden runoff to the environment. One of the simplest ways for nursery operators to achieve these two aims is to collect and recycle their irrigation runoff. Two issues that need to be overcome with this approach are: (i) the development of algal blooms in nutrient enriched storage dams, and (ii) the spread of plant diseases. A constructed wetland may provide a relatively inexpensive, low -maintenance solution to these problems. This article describes the findings of a three year monitoring study on the north coast of New South Wales into the use of subsurface flow constructed wetlands (reed beds) for the removal of nutrients and plant pathogens from nursery runoff. Suggestions for designing and constructing reed bed treatment systems for nursery irrigation runoff are also presented.

Characterization of Irrigated Holdings in the Terra Ch� Region of Spain: A First Step Towards a Water Management Model

The European Union’s Water Framework Directive, and in Spain the National Irrigation Plan, call for the sustainable and integrated use of water resources. Here we report the results of a questionnaire administered to irrigation users in the Terra Cha region of northwest Spain, as the basis for a water management model, and to allow identification of a representative subsample of respondents for ongoing monitoring of irrigation use in this region. The proposed management model should fulfill the dual aims of sustainable water management, namely to promote long-term social and economic development and at the same time ensure long-term environmental protection.

Evaluation of water-use in traditional irrigation

The approval of the National Irrigation Plan (NIP) in Spain in 2001 accelerated the improvement and modernisation of the irrigated areas. The first step towards the implementation of performance of the actions envisaged in the plan is to analyse water-use in traditional irrigation. Moreover, the social impacts of irrigation on rural areas must be evaluated, and the common irrigation practices must be determined. This paper presents the results of a study conducted in the Lemos Valley irrigation district (NW of Spain). Irrigation evaluations were conducted in nine trial sites, representing the existing soil types. A sample of irrigation users were interviewed to gather information about water-use, land tenure and irrigation socioeconomics. This irrigation district is characterised by low water-use efficiency, significant losses in the distribution network, fragmented land ownership and a poor use of the available infrastructure. Yet, water availability and an important distribution network render the modernisation of this traditional irrigated land a challenging task that must be faced.

Reed Beds for the Remediation and Recycling of Nursery Runoff Water

The water reform process of recent years has brought about dramatic regulatory changes regarding the access to, and pollution of, water resources in Australia. This has caused intensive irrigation users, such as the nursery and greenhouse industries, to look for ways of reducing both the quantity of water used and the discharge of nutrient-laden runoff to the environment. One of the simplest ways for nursery operators to achieve these two aims is to collect and recycle their irrigation runoff. Two issues that need to be overcome with this approach are: (i) the development of algal blooms in nutrient enriched storage dams, and (ii) the spread of plant diseases. A constructed wetland may provide a relatively inexpensive, low-maintenance solution to these problems. This article describes the findings of a three year monitoring study on the north coast of New South Wales into the use of subsurface flow constructed wetlands (reed beds) for the removal of nutrients and plant pathogens from nursery runoff. Suggestions for designing and constructing reed bed treatment systems for nursery irrigation runoff are also presented.

Evaluation of different filter materials used in drip irrigation systems

Emitter plugging is the major problem faced by drip irrigation users. To avoid plugging of emitters, proper operation and maintenance of filtration and chlorination is essential. A screen mesh filter can benefit a drip irrigation system's operation if properly used. The performance of screen filter is dependent on the maintenance it receives and the conditions under which it must operate. In order to assess the filter performance, pressure drop, filtration rate, turbidity reduction, filtration efficiency parameters were studied. From the study, the maximum filtration efficiency was observed in case of steel wire mesh of 120 size.