Punjab Irrigation Research Articles

Artificial intelligence (AI) inspired an innovative approach for real-time flow measurements – water distributions at outlets, in Punjab province Pakistan

ABSTRACT Accurate water metering is essential for effective water management, especially for measured and equitable distribution of canal flows, most imperative in Pakistan. The inflows distributed through outlets must adhere to pre-designated levels, defined by Punjab Irrigation Department from head to tail. With recent channels lining, the outlets sanctioned flow are found changed requiring adjustments. Furthermore, there is lack of reliable mechanisms for continuous flow regulations, resulting in unmanaged distributions. The focus of the reported work was on precise and real-time discharge monitoring at outlets using a newly developed device utilizing Artificial Intelligence. During validation training, strong agreement was observed, and all evaluation parameters supported the device accuracy for measurements. In detailed studies of canal operations, the sanctioned discharges of individual outlets along selected distributaries were found significantly inequitable. Out of 162 outlets, 42 were suspended for being unmanaged, with tail users receiving ≤ 50% of their fair intakes. Additionally, there were instances of massive irrational supplies exceeding 200% of allocated discharges. The developed device has potential to accurately measure real-time discharges for managed distributions. Conclusively, the challenging task of fair and equity-based discharge allocations, in conjunction with Warabandi system, necessitates the reevaluation of the allocated flow quantity at each outlet.

Groundwater Quality and Quantity Analysis for Irrigation Purposes in Okara, Sahiwal and Khanewal Districts of Punjab, Pakistan

Irrigated agriculture is the major determinant of economic growth potential as it accounts for 20% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country. The current study focuses on the qualitative and quantitative assessment of groundwater in three districts i.e., Okara, Sahiwal and Khanewal of the Punjab province of Pakistan, which are considered highly fertile for agriculture production. The data were acquired from the Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) for 10 years (2010-2020) to assess the spatio-temporal patterns. The spatiotemporal mapping and variability of depth to the water table, electrical conductivity (EC), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) were done as per the standards of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Punjab Irrigation Department using inverse distance weighting (IDW) statistical approach of GIS Techniques. The finding of the study revealed that overall water quality in the study area was reported as “fit” by following the WHO standards, whereas as per Punjab Irrigation Department standards, it was observed, as “Moderately fit”. Moreover, in Sahiwal, Okara, and Khanewal districts, the average depth of the water table declined from 2010 to 2015 by 0.619, 1.286, and 0.164 metres and then increased from 2016 to 2020 by 1.698, 1.421 and 0.830 metres, respectively. Although currently the quality and quantity of groundwater were not in critical condition, with continued carelessness and the release of additional water from aquifers, these conditions could deteriorate in the near future. So, developing a suitable mechanism for supplying surface water to farmers, and adapting environmentally acceptable methods of recharging aquifers is much needed.

Tillage Practices Affect Rhizospheric Moisture Availability and Performance of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Cultivars under Spate Irrigation in Punjab, Pakistan

Selection of suitable tillage technique can ensure most productive use of available hill torrent water in spate irrigated areas for improved crop productivity and profitability. During rabi season 2021-22, a field study on chickpea was undertaken in Vidor hill torrent command area of Dera Ghazi Khan Punjab, Pakistan. In this experiment three cultivars of chickpea viz Bittle-2016, Thal-2020 and Bhakhar-2011 were evaluated under spate irrigated conditions along with local cultivar (Farmer practice) for comparison. Tillage practices at the seedbed preparation stage evaluated were cultivator and rotavator as follows i.e. T1= Two turns of cultivator (Farmer practice), T2=Three turns of cultivator, T3=Two turns of cultivator + one turn of rotavator, T4= one turn of cultivator + one turn of rotavator. The experiment was conducted under randomized complete block design (RCBD) with factorial arrangement and treatments were replicated three times. Soil moisture was measured through gravimetric method and chickpea yield parameters were estimated as per standard procedures. The means were tested for significance using HSD Tuckey’s test at 5 % level of probability. Results revealed that cultivars and tillage practices showed significant variations for tested parameters. In this experiment maximum soil moisture conservation, number of branches per plant, pods per plant, seeds per pod, seed yield (kg ha-1) and harvest index (%) were observed from Farmer practice i.e. 2 turns of cultivator under local cultivar used. Moreover, comparatively similar results were revealed from the plots where 3 turns of cultivator was run and Thal-2020 cultivar was grown under the local conditions of Vidor hill torrent command area of Dera Ghazi Khan, Punjab, Pakistan. Plots where 2 turns cultivator was used, the maximum benefit cost ratio (BCR, 1.85) was observed from local cultivar (Farmer practice). Moreover, among newly tested cultivars, Thal-2020 showed encouraging results in terms of soil moisture contents, yield attributes with BCR 1.73 in plots where 2 turns cultivator was run. Under the prevailing agro normals of spate irrigated conditions of Vidor hill torrent command area, farmers should use 2 turns of cultivator with local cultivar. However, more research is needed to acclimatize latest varieties of chickpea after adaptability trials.

CROP WATER CONSUMPTION MODELLING AT OUTLET LEVEL BY USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

The enlarged demand of water due to agriculture expansion, increasing industrial and domestic needs, compounded with climate change is causing scarcity of water globally and Pakistan is also facing same conditions. Due to limited availability of water, it is necessary to adopt global best practices being employed for sustainable agricultural water management. Remote sensing techniques are being intensively used around the globe with confidence to monitor the crops growth and crop water use. The aim of the research is to develop crop water consumption monitoring system at the outlet level to regulate irrigation water distribution at farm level. Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) is used to develop pilot case study for year 2017-18 at a distributary canal command level named 5R-Yousafwala located in Sahiwal District. Crop classification based on Landsat-8 imagery was provided by Punjab Irrigation Department. Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 images were acquired for NDVI monitoring. Metrological data for Penman Monteith based evapotranspiration calculation was acquired from Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS). Analogue cadastral maps of outlet command areas were converted to digital georeferenced format. The provided crop classification was verified after discussion with farmers during detailed field survey. In Rabi season of 2017-18, mean evapotranspiration (ET) actual was estimated about 352 mm, while in Kharif season of 2018, it was estimated as 425 mm. The crop water deficit was estimated as 36 % in rabi season and 30 % in kharif season. Irrigation share was only 37 % in Rabi season and 48% in Kharif season. Rainfall contributed 09 % in Rabi season and 30% in Kharif season. Groundwater was paramount contributor with 54 % share in rabi season while in Kharif season it contributed relatively minor share of 22%. The ET potential and ET actual fluctuate in all outlet commands due to the diverse crop cover and economic capacity to pump groundwater. The results could be proved very useful for irrigation department to monitor and reform the irrigation supplies at particular outlets by observing the crop demand, weather conditions and crop stage instead of monitoring outlet discharge only.

The level and distribution of selected organochlorine pesticides in water of River Satluj Pakistan.

The study was aimed to identify different environmental factors (selected organochlorine pesticides) affecting the river water of Satluj. River Sutlej is about 1400 kilometers long and its water is extensively used for irrigation in Punjab, located both in India and Pakistan, which was also a reason of dispute between both countries for its water share. The study area was divided into four zones, Sulemanki Zone, Islam Zone, Mailsi Syphone Zone and Panjnad Zone. Liquid Liquid Extraction (LLE) technique was used for the collected water samples followed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) UV-Visible detector The current finding revealed that aldrin was not detected during summer period in water samples of SZ-1 (Sulemanki Barrage), SZ-2 and SZ-3 (Maisli Siphon) of the study area. Lindane and DDE were found more in the samples of sediments from the study area at SZ-4 ranging from 2.238-8.226 ppb and 4.234-6.876 ppb, respectively. Heaptachlor (in sediments) was found to be0.032-234 ppb only at SZ-4.Endosulfan concentrations in water (winter) at SZ-3 was 0.06 ppb and at SZ-4,it was 0.05 ppb; dieldrin in water (winter) at SZ-4 was 0.0314 ppb and heptachlor was detected at SZ-1 (0.0315 ppb) and SZ-2 (0.0310 ppb) in water during winter season, were reaching to the Maximum Concentrations Limits (MCL), while all other residues investigated were found below the MCLin all the compartments of the study area set by various agencies like WHO/FAO- Codex Alimenterious. Present findings revealed that although the organochlorine pesticides are banned for agricultural use in many countries, including Pakistan, their presence in various samples might be due to illegal use of these pesticides in the study area and its neighboring regions. The overall study area comprises of mainly urban, suburban and agricultural land being the largest cotton growing area of the country. There is a need to take serious steps to minimize water pollution caused by pesticides to achieve a healthy lifestyle.

Impact of Cropping Pattern and Climatic Parameters in Lower Chenab Canal System—Case Study from Punjab Pakistan

In Pakistan, groundwater resources are depleting at an alarming rate due to intensive pumping, shifting of cropping patterns, and climate change vulnerability. The present study is aimed at investigating groundwater stress in the command area of Lower Chenab Canal (LCC) and associated branch canals. Groundwater stress is determined by considering the cropping patterns, surface water availability, groundwater levels, climatic variation, and crop water requirement (CWR) in the LCC command area. The climatic data is obtained from the Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) from 1990 to 2020. The records of temporal variation in cropping patterns are obtained from the Crop Reporting Service (CRS), Directorate of Agriculture, Lahore for the 1995–2020 period and classified according to Rabi season (November to April) and Kharif season (May to October). The LCC surface water flows data and groundwater levels are collected from the Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) Lahore from 2003 to 2018 and from 1995 to 2016, respectively. The CWR is estimated using the Cropwat 8.0 model and groundwater levels are estimated using the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) tool of ArcGIS software. It has been determined that Faisalabad, Sheikhupura, and Toba Tek Singh are highly groundwater stress cities having an average drawdown rate of 0.58 m/year. The surface water availability is also decreased from 7.75 to 4.81 billion cubic meters (Bm3) for the Kharif season whilst 4.17 to 2.63 Bm3 for the Rabi season. This study concluded that due to severe conditions in highly stressed areas, policy planners, decision-makers, and stakeholders should sincerely take some steps for maintaining groundwater levels either by capacity building workshops for the farmers or limiting the number of tubewells.

Assessment of Variation in Groundwater Quality and Level for Irrigation Using Long-Term Data

In Pakistan, the symbols of water stress are ubiquitous in the form of water resources depletion, water scarcity, quality, depletion of level and contamination. Water is a precious gift of God for all living and non-living things to complete the cycle of ecosystem. This research was conducted to check the trends groundwater level and its quality analysis using long term data of same study area. In this study area, groundwater quality and level data of 421 piezometric wells of 15 years were used to analyze through graphical analysis, from a region in Pakistan. The four major indicators for irrigation as recommended by Punjab Irrigation Department are; pH, EC, RSC and SAR. These parameters were used and appraisal for irrigation to fit or unfit the monitoring sites. The results indicate the significant increasing trend of level as well as quality of water. Average declining of groundwater table is 0.0963 meter per year in study area. As 20% of the groundwater depth is declining per year. Sites unfit ratio is 50% of the total monitoring sites being installed with respect to quality parameters. These trends indicate more water extraction in region that cause adverse effect on quality and level. This research is an excellent recommendation for water experts, to amend new law for operation of water resources and its extraction from groundwater through tubewells. The heavy metal concentration, hazardous waste to soil and sewerage of colonies should be supervised on daily basis.

Evaluation of monsoon effect on groundwater quality using GIS mapping: A case study of Bahawalnagar district-Pakistan

A research was carried out in Bahawalnagar, South Punjab. Both water quality and quantity have great importance for the existence of the agriculture sector that is a backbone of economy of Pakistan. Water is necessary for all living creatures. The groundwater quality was assessed using GIS (Geographical Information System) applications and GS+ software. The three major indicators Electrical Conductivity (EC), Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) were analyzed during pre and post-monsoon season. These three major parameters and pH of groundwater quality are mostly checked in both seasons. The water quality parameters of 183 monitoring sites were analyzed according to standard protocol by Punjab Irrigation Department and PCRWR (Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources). The groundwater quality was mainly affected by EC, SAR and RSC parameters. The area effected during pre and post monsoon was “75 and 70%” respectively. The groundwater quality maps showing adverse effects increasingly from north-east to south-west. But most of the area affected due to EC parameter and high adverse effect was observed during post monsoon season in case of SAR and RSC parameters.

Innovative initiative for effective operation and monitoring using HEC‐RAS modelling of Hakra Branch Canal System, Pakistan*

AbstractThe Punjab Irrigation System is one of the world's largest contiguous systems, with its entire network extending over nearly 31,000 km in length. The system faces numerous constraints that limit the canal operations and their respective design discharges. Shortage of irrigation water is a contest that normally occurs at canal tail‐end users. The hydraulic performance of open canal networks is not easy to assess; therefore, it is impossible to feed the lateral offtakes with their design shares without changing designed or existing gate openings. To overcome these problems, a Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System (HEC‐RAS) model has been developed to simulate the flow situation in the canal system. For this study, the Hakra Branch Canal System with a command area of 1.4 million hectares was selected. To recognize model performance, water levels at the head of the canal and tail discharge have been compared with field data. The simulated results show the best‐fit match with field head water levels with coefficients of determination (R2) of 0.765 and 0.877 and tail discharges of the canal with R2 = 0.707 and 0.945, for calibration and validation periods, respectively. The hydraulic simulation model is a useful tool for effective canal operation to determine the losses and find out the expected discharge for the tail‐end users. It has been observed that the proportion of excess actual delivery of water to lateral offtakes results in inadequate water supply for the tail‐end users. It is recommended that during the observation of the seasonally discharge table, the irrigation engineer should adjust a factor either in the HEC‐RAS model or in the observed data. It is also recommended to develop an unsteady model for considering sediment transport.

Performance evaluation of participatory irrigation management as an alternative to a state‐managed irrigation system*

AbstractThe Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) system is one of the large old irrigation systems in Punjab, Pakistan. To overcome problems of water distribution and management in conventional state‐managed irrigation, a participatory irrigation management (PIM) system was introduced in the LBDC command area in 2012. From the very large system of the LBDC, 20 different kinds of distributaries were selected in this study as representatives for evaluating performance of the new system. The primary data were gathered through questionnaires and by interviewing farmers, whereas the secondary data were gathered from the related offices of the Punjab Irrigation Department. The analysis of collected data illustrates that water service deliveries (WSDs) were poor even after implementation of PIM. The research shows that under administration of both systems, efficiency regarding provision of water seemed to be poor. The outcomes show that with the passage of time, recovery (abiana) decreased after implementation of the PIM system but the financial sustainability of PIM has improved compared to state administration. Finally, the current study recommends institutional reforms in PIM and comprehensive work on educating the farmers about their role in PIM as a mandatory component for improving efficiency of the PIM system.

Valuation and Aspirations for Drip Irrigation in Punjab, Pakistan

AbstractModern drip-irrigation technologies improve water-use efficiency while simultaneously transforming areas that are not otherwise irrigable in practice (too distant or too high to be reached ...

GROUNDWATER STORAGE CHANGE ESTIMATION USING GRACE SATELLITE DATA IN INDUS BASIN

Over exploitation of Ground Water (GW) has resulted in lowering of water table in the Indus Basin. While waterlogging, salinity and seawater intrusion has resulted in rising of water table in Indus Basin. The sparse piezometer network cannot provide sufficient data to map groundwater changes spatially. To estimate groundwater change in this region, data from Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite was used. GRACE measures (Total Water Storage) TWS and used to estimate groundwater storage change. Net change in storage of groundwater was estimated from the change in TWS by including the additional components such as Soil Moisture (SM), Surface water storage (Qs) and snowpack equivalent water (SWE). For the estimation of these components Global Land Data Assimilation system (GLDAS) Land Surface Models (LSMs) was used. Both GRACE and GLDAS produce results for the Indus Basin for the period of April 2010 to January 2017. The monitoring well water-level records from the Scarp Monitoring Organization (SMO) and the Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA) from April 2009 to December 2016 were used. The groundwater results from different combinations of GRACE products GFZ (GeoforschungsZentrum Potsdam) CSR (Center for Space Research at University of Texas, Austin) JPL (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) and GLDAS LSMs (CLM, NOAH and VIC) are calibrated (April 2009-2014) and validated (April 2015-April 2016) with in-situ measurements. For yearly scale, their correlation coefficient reaches 0.71 with Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) 0.82. It was estimated that net loss in groundwater storage is at mean rate of 85.01 mm per year and 118,668.16 Km3 in the 7 year of study period (April 2010-Jan 2017). GRACE TWS data were also able to pick up the signals from the large-scale flooding events observed in 2010 and 2014. These flooding events played a significant role in the replenishment of the groundwater system in the Indus Basin. Our study indicates that the GRACE based estimation of groundwater storage changes is skillful enough to provide monthly updates on the trend of the groundwater storage changes for resource managers and policy makers of Indus Basin.

Groundwater Irrigation in Punjab

Punjab located in the north western part of India is a small state comprising 1.54per cent of the total geographical area and little over2 per cent of the total population in the country. It is the largest contributor of wheat (around 55 per cent) and second largest of paddy (around 42 per cent) thoughts relative contribution in central pool of food grains both for wheat and paddy has been declining during the last few years. Sustainability of agriculture in Punjab is thus important for the state’s economy and also for food security in India Groundwater has played a key role in success of Green Revolution in India especially in original Green Revolution states comprising Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh (UP). The agriculture in state has reached a plateau making it very hard to make further progress under available technologies and the natural resource base; and the very sustainability of rice-wheat production system is under threat and climate change is posing new challenge on future agricultural growth.

Potato tuber yield and quality in response to different nitrogen fertilizer application rates under two split doses in an irrigated sandy loam soil

Management strategies to minimize nitrogen (N) losses to the atmosphere and water bodies from potato production fields while maintaining tuber yields and quality relies on good N management. A 2-year (2016–17 and 2017–18) field trial with ‘Symphonia’ potato was completed on a sandy loam soil irrigated with flood irrigation in Punjab, Pakistan to investigate the effect of N fertilizer rate on vegetative, yield and tuber quality parameters. The N fertilizer treatments comprising six N rates from 0 to 300 kg ha−1 were applied at 50 kg N increments. Number of stems and tubers plant−1 showed a quadratic response while other parameters revealed cubic trends in response to N fertilizer rates. Applying more than 250 kg ha−1 of N fertilizer did not increase vegetative growth and yield. In conclusion, the optimal N-application rate of 250 Kg ha−1 has great potential to improve yield and quality of potato in the sub-tropical region of Punjab, Pakistan. These findings, besides improving productivity can minimize the risk of N fertilizer loss to the atmosphere.

Flood Frequency Analysis of Chenab River for Predicting Peak Flows during Late Monsoon Period

The River Chenab is one of the main western rivers of the Indus River system in Pakistan, which undergoes intensive inundation almost every year during the late monsoon period. The present study performs flood frequency analyses for the river basin as well as simulates different levels of water flow in the system to speculate all kinds of inundation under different scenarios, i.e., to predict flood hazard and flood extended areas. Flood frequency analyses were performed at MARALA Headworks to Khanki Headworks. Data were collected from the Punjab Irrigation Department, Pakistan and from USGS and ASTER GDEM. The peak discharge of MARALA Headworks had been analyzed for 25 years. The preprocessing was performed in HEC Geo-RAS after preprocessing model run in HEC-RAS. After analysis the data were exported in HEC-RAS to ARCMAP to generate a floodplain and inundation map. Our analysis generated the result that different areas would be under water in different return periods. Flood hazards maps for different return periods 10, 20, 50 and 100 years were conducted using annual peaks flow of 35 years from 1980 to 2016. The maximum discharges at up and down stream for different periods were obtained using Gumbel distribution model results which showed that different areas were predicted under water in different return periods and affected areas after five years’ return period.

3-D numerical modelling of groundwater flow for scenario-based analysis and management

In recent years, extensive competition for groundwater use among different consumers has exploited major freshwater aquifers in Pakistan. There is an urgent need for appraisal of this precious resource followed by some mitigation strategies. This modelling study was conducted in the mixed cropping zone of the Punjab, Pakistan. Both remote sensing and secondary data were utilized to achieve objectives of this study. The data related to piezometric water levels, canal gauges, well logs, meteorological and lithological information were collected from Punjab Irrigation Department (PID), Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA). Groundwater flow models for both steady and transient conditions were set-up using FEFLOW-3D. Water balance components and recharge were estimated using empirical relations and inverse modelling approaches. Both manual and automated approaches were utilized to calibrate the models. Moreover, sensitivity analysis was performed to see the response of model output against different model input parameters. Followed by calibration and validation, the model was run for different management scenarios, including lining of canal sections, minimization of field percolation, and change of groundwater abstraction. The study results show a drop in groundwater levels for almost all scenarios. The highest negative change was observed for the 4th scenario (i.e. 25% increase in groundwater pumping over a 10-year period), with a value of 3.73 m, by ignoring very wet summer and winter seasons. For normal weather conditions, the highest negative change was observed for the 4th scenario with a value of 2.91 m followed by 2.68 m for the 3rd scenario (i.e. 50% reduction in canal seepage and field percolation over a 10-year period). For very wet summer and winter seasons, only one positive change was observed, for the 5th scenario (i.e. 25% decrease in groundwater pumping during 10 years period), with a value of 1.17 m. The changes for all other scenarios were negative. The mitigation strategy may include less groundwater pumping, by supporting cultivation of low delta crops and adjusting cropping patterns considering canal water supplies. It is further suggested to support current modelling results by incorporating more detailed information on cropping and by exploring the effect of climate change.

Assessment and Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Groundwater Irrigation

Irrigation with groundwater consumes considerable energy as well as water resources across the world. Using a case study from Indian Punjab, this article emphasizes how a continued and massive use of groundwater for irrigation has reduced groundwater levels and increased carbon emissions. Estimates of C emissions from groundwater pumping for irrigation in Punjab indicate that over a period of 14 years (1998–2012), groundwater use has increased by 23%; groundwater levels have fallen by 5.47 m; energy requirements have increased by 67% resulting in increase in C emissions by 110%. Emissions rates have increased from 33 to 55 g m−3 of groundwater used, and 43.2 to 78 g-C kg−1 of grain. Thus, groundwater management is not only important to ensure sustainability of the finite resource but also is vital to control environmental consequences of groundwater use for irrigation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

IoT Enabled Analysis of Irrigation Rosters in the Indus Basin Irrigation System

The Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) is the world's largest contiguous irrigation system, irrigating over 2.5 million acres and running over 90,000 km of watercourses. It ensures equitable water distribution to farmers through irrigation rosters or warabandi (literally meaning “taking turns”) which is a fixed-turn rotation system following a time roster issued by the government agencies. To study this irrigation system, we have developed an Internet-of-Things (IoT) inspired custom-built water metering network, capable of near real-time reporting of flow discharges through GPRS and backend server services. In 2013-14, a network of flow meters was deployed on 17 distributary canals in the Hakra Branch Canal command in IBIS covering more than two cropping seasons. By comparing the captured water distribution data (sampled every 10 minutes) with Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) issued warabandi rosters, an analysis of the warabandi rosters is presented in this paper.

Comparison of Clark, Nash Geographical Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph models for semi arid regions

This paper compares the results obtained from three hydrologic techniques namely Clark, Nash and Geographical Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph. Underpinning of these models and calibration of parameters for these models was a demanding assignment which was performed by downhill simplex optimization method. A semi-arid region of Pakistan was selected for testing the models. Computer coding was prepared for all the models. SPOT maps of the study area were collected from NESPAK (National Engineering Services of Pakistan). The rainfall runoff data was taken from Punjab Irrigation and Power Department. The maps were digitized using ERDAS and Arc GIS to determine the geographic parameters of the watershed. Field surveys and measurements were used to estimate the discharge data. The shape of direct runoff hydrograph, peak flows and time to peak flow obtained from the three models were compared. The model efficiency was determined by a statistical parameter coefficient of determination. It was found that the Clark model simulated superior results in comparison with Nash and Geographical Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph models.

COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF IMPLEMENTING PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN PUNJAB, PAKISTAN

Participatory irrigation management is gradually being introduced in the canal irrigation system in Pakistan. In this study, performance of a participatory irrigation management system is compared with that of a conventional centrally controlled irrigation system. The study is carried out for canal irrigation systems of Lower Chenab and Jhelum, both located in Punjab, Pakistan. The performance indicators used included: establishment cost, operation and maintenance cost, water fees (abiana) collected and equity of water distribution. The data for performance assessment were collected from various sources, including field measurements, interviews with farmers, interviews with officers of the irrigation department, previous studies, and data from the Punjab Irrigation Department and the Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority. The analysis indicates that establishment costs of both public–private partnership management and a centrally controlled irrigation system are more than operational and maintenance costs. The water supply in the main canal is satisfactory in both systems. Water fees (abiana) collected are declining in the case of the participatory management system. Structural change in the participatory management system and extensive work on capacity building are required in order to obtain the benefits of transferring management to farmers' organizations in Pakistan. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.