Irrigation Activities Research Articles

Activation of Irrigants in Root Canals with Open Apices: A Narrative Review

Performing endodontic treatment on a tooth with an immature apex can be challenging due to the risk of irrigant extrusion beyond the apex. This narrative review investigates the over-apex extrusion of activated irrigants in teeth with open and immature apices and aims to provide crucial insights for practice and research. Two hundred fifty-two results were found from the electronic search. Sixteen duplicates were removed before selection, and 24 were excluded. Of the 212 remaining results, the full text was evaluated for eligibility. One hundred ninety-four results were excluded: in one hundred sixty-five, irrigant activation was not performed; twenty-nine were animal studies; in seven, irrigant activation was not performed to disinfect the canal. Finally, 13 studies were included. They cover a range of topics, from the types of irrigants used to the techniques of activation, and their findings contribute to our understanding of the risks and consequences of irrigant extrusion. All the activation techniques investigated can, to varying degrees, cause the irrigant to extrude beyond the apex. Extrusion may not always be clinically relevant; however, the consequences of excessive irrigant leakage from the apex are dangerous, so try to assess all the variables that may cause it and adopt techniques to reduce it.

Prevalence of human Schistosoma mansoni infection in endemic regions (2010–2024): a systematic review and meta-analysis

Schistosoma mansoni infection poses a substantial public health challenge globally, and the World Health Organization (WHO) aims for the elimination of schistosomiasis by 2030. This study aimed to assess the current prevalence of human S.mansoni infection in endemic regions worldwide between 2010 and2024. We conducted a comprehensive search in PubMed/Medline and Scopus databases as well as other public sources from 1 January 2010 to 15 July 2024. Population-based studies reporting the prevalence of S.mansoni infection were eligible. We undertook a random-effects meta-analysis to estimate pooled prevalences with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) in WHO-defined regions and assessed potential risk factors associated with S.mansoni infection. The protocol for this study was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42023438455). We identified a total of 542 eligible studies involving 1,163,866 individuals who had been tested for S.mansoni infection in 38 countries. The overall, pooled global prevalence of S.mansoni infection in endemic region was 14.8% (95% CI, 13.5%-16.1%). The pooled prevalences (95% CI) in specific regions were: 15.3% (13.9-16.8%) in sub-Saharan Africa, 12.4% (8.9-16.4%) in South America and 9.5% (5.4-14.6%) in the Eastern Mediterranean region. There was a 52.6% decrease in prevalence of S.mansoni infection and a 37% decrease in high-intensity infection for studies conducted between 2010 and 2014 compared to those conducted between 2020 and 2023. The present analysis revealed that factors including male gender, bathing or swimming in natural water bodies, crossing rivers or lakes, and engaging in water irrigation activities such as fishing, working in rice paddies or maintaining irrigation canals were significantly associated with S.mansoni infection. The findings of this investigation revealed that, despite a decline in prevalence and high-intensity infection, 7-12% of people in endemic regions, notably in sub-Saharan Africa, remained affected by schistosomiasis mansoni between 2020 and 2024. This study provides data of relevance to policymakers to support efforts to eliminate this disease. This study received no funding.

Effect of a novel irrigation regimen and root canal filling material versus conventional endodontic protocols on dentin wettability.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of different irrigation regimens on the dentin wettability of root canal sealers. The occlusal surfaces of human molar teeth (N = 90) were removed, polished, and divided into three groups (n = 30) based on the irrigation regimen: control group (SAL), standard irrigation group (NES), and test group (ODC). Each group was randomly divided into three subgroups according to the root canal sealer: AH Plus (AHP), Total Fill BC Sealer HiFlow (TOT), and OdneFill (ODF). The contact angle was determined using the sessile drop technique. The pendant droplet method assessed the work of adhesion. Surface roughness was measured using atomic force microscopy. Data were analyzed using non-parametric tests (p < .05). ODC-ODF showed significantly lower contact angle (34.80°) than ODC-AHP (66.53°, p < .001) and ODC-TOT (85.72°, p < .001). In NES, no significant difference was found between ODF and AHP (p > .05) while both groups presented significantly lower results than TOT (p < .001, p < .001, respectively). In SAL, the difference between TOT (92.84°) and AHP (83.24°) was insignificant (p > .05), whereas ODF presented significantly lower results compared to both (p < .001, p < .001, respectively). Surface roughness was lowest in ODC (31.54nm), followed by SAL (62.30nm) and NES (72.02 nms) which was significantly (p = 0.006) higher than ODC, whereas the difference between SAL and NES was insignificant (p > .05). This study highlights the wettability of a new root canal sealer and the effect of a new irrigation activation system on the wettability of different root canal sealers. OdneFill showed superior wettability compared to other sealers while exhibiting a synergistic effect with OdneClean.

Hypermobility of a Catastrophic Earthquake-Induced Loess Landslide

Landslide mobility refers to how far and fast a landslide can move downslope. It controls landslide impact areas and damage power. Highly mobile landslides are often initiated on slopes steeper than 30°. However, on 18 December 2023, an earthquake-induced landslide (35°52′54″N, 102°51′10″E) exhibited extraordinary mobility, with an overall travel angle of 1.5°, breaking an on-land landslide record. The landslide originated on a gentle slope (3.6°), eroded an earth dam along its travel path, and finally destroyed 51 houses and claimed 20 lives. Remote sensing and field surveys were conducted to provide morphological characteristics of the hazard chain. A numerical program, EDDA (Erosion–Deposition Debris Flow Analysis), was employed to reproduce the flow dynamics and investigate the causes of hypermobility. The findings reveal three primary causes of hypermobility: (1) liquefaction of the saturated silty loess stratum due to the combined effects of irrigation activity and seismic loading, (2) the loose and macro-pore structure of loess, and (3) confined topography and icy channel bed. The mechanisms revealed have broad implications for understanding fluidized mass movements on gentle slopes in seismically active regions.

Effectiveness of Activated Sodium Hypochlorite Irrigation by Shock Wave-Enhanced Emission Photoacoustic Streaming, Sonic and Ultrasonic Devices in Removing Enterococcus faecalis Biofilm From Root Canal System.

Aim: To compare shock wave-enhanced emission photoacoustic streaming (SWEEPS) with sonic- and ultrasonically activated irrigation systems in removing Enterococcus faecalis biofilm from the root canal system. Methodology: Fifty human single-canalled mandibular premolars were included in the study. After access cavity preparation, the root canals were prepared to a standardized size and taper. Then, the entire root surface was covered with two layers of resin, and the root apices were sealed before sterilization. All root canals were inoculated with E. faecalis biofilm, and the samples were incubated aerobically for 2 weeks at 37 °C. Biofilm formation was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. All samples were randomly divided into five groups (n = 10 each) based on their irrigation activation method as A (no treatment or negative control), B (no irrigation or positive control), C (sonically activated irrigation (SAI)), D (ultrasonically activated irrigation (UAI)), and E (needle irrigation activated by an Er: YAG laser device using a SWEEPS quartz tip (SWEEPS)). Then, dentine chips were retrieved, vortexed, and diluted for colony-forming unit counts. Data were analysed using analysis of variance and post-hoc Tukey tests (α = 5%). Results: All methods could significantly reduce E. faecalis biofilm compared with control so that the UAI, SWEEPS, and SAI groups indicated a 23.54%, 14.89%, and 7.81% biofilm reduction, respectively. UAI demonstrated a significantly more effective reduction of E. faecalis biofilm than SAI (p = 0.004). Conclusions: All irrigation activation methods significantly reduced E. faecalis biofilm, with ultrasonic use being the most effective.

A confocal laser scanning microscopic analysis of efficacy of different activated irrigants in the removal of calcium hydroxide medicament and subsequent penetrability of Bio-C sealer – An in vitro study

Abstract Aim: The aim of the study was to investigate the efficacy of different irrigants activated by pro-agitator tip system (PATS) Vario on the removal of calcium hydroxide medicament and subsequent penetration depth of Bio-C sealer. Materials and Methods: Fifty single-rooted mandibular premolars were selected. Access cavities were prepared; biomechanical preparation was done. Metapex that had been combined with rhodamine B dye was used to fill each sample. All the samples were divided into five groups (n = 10) – Group I: chitosan–citrate, Group II: intracanal heated sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), Group III: phytic acid, Group IV: SmearClear, and Group V: saline. All samples were obturated using gutta-percha and Bio-C sealer (combined with fluorescein dye). Later, all samples were sectioned at 3, 6, and 9 mm from the apex and observed under a confocal microscope for residual Ca(OH)2 and sealer penetration into dentinal tubules. Results: The saline group exhibited the least amount of sealer penetration and high residual Ca(OH)2, both of which were statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: The use of PATS Vario for irrigant activation enhanced the calcium hydroxide removal efficacy and penetration of Bio-C sealer into dentinal tubules. The elimination of calcium hydroxide and sealer penetration, from the apical region of the tooth, can be accelerated by intracanal heating of NaOCl.

Irrigation temperature and activation's impact on organic tissue removal

Irrigation temperature and activation's impact on organic tissue removal

¿Libre de la Maleza Estatista? Assessing Neoliberal Promises and Water Markets in Chile

AbstractNeoliberal approaches to water governance, pioneered in Chile in the 1980s, are reappearing today on the centerstage of the water policy debate. While advocates claim that strong property rights, limits on government authority, and water markets can enhance environmental sustainability, efficiency, neutrality, and equity in the distribution of water rights, limited empirical evidence exists on whether neoliberal policies have delivered on these key promises. In this paper, we combine hydrological analysis with a nationwide data set on government water rights allocations between 1981 and 2021 to determine when and where water has been allocated beyond sustainable limits. We then integrate water market transaction and agricultural data to assess how allocations and scarcity conditions relate to spatial and temporal patterns in irrigation, crop distribution, and water market activity. Our results indicate that 30% of catchments are overallocated, and that continued government allocations of water rights during scarcity exacerbate already‐high inequalities in the distribution of water. We find no evidence that scarcity or water markets induced improvements in numerous efficiency metrics. Overall, our results support growing claims that the neoliberal water model fails to fulfill its key promises, notably to the detriment of nature and marginalized rural communities.

The Efficacy of Brush File Used for Irrigation Activation Versus Passive Ultrasonic Irrigation in Terms of Smear Layer Removal and Canal Cleanliness in Single Rooted Teeth: A Comparative In-Vitro Study

The Efficacy of Brush File Used for Irrigation Activation Versus Passive Ultrasonic Irrigation in Terms of Smear Layer Removal and Canal Cleanliness in Single Rooted Teeth: A Comparative In-Vitro Study

Effects of irrigation activation techniques on root canal walls after post-space preparation: A scanning electron microscopy study

Effects of irrigation activation techniques on root canal walls after post-space preparation: A scanning electron microscopy study

Impact of different activation procedures on sodium hypochlorite penetration into dentinal tubules after endodontic retreatment via confocal laser scanning microscopy

BackgroundInfected dentinal tubules are a possible source of bacteria that are responsible for the failure of root canal treatment. Therefore, disinfection of dentinal tubules by increasing the penetration of the irrigation solution is important for success in retreatment cases. This study utilized confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) to assess and compare the impact of XPR, ultrasonic irrigation (UI) and sonic activation (SA) on NaOCl penetration into dentinal tubules following endodontic retreatment.MethodsA total of forty mandibular premolars were enrolled in this investigation. Following root canal preparation up to ProTaper X3 file (30/0.07), root canals were obturated with gutta-percha and bioceramic root canal sealer with single cone technique. The root canal filling materials were removed using ProTaper nickel-titanium rotary retreatment files until the working length was reached. The retreatment procedure was finalized using the ProTaper Next X4 (40/0.06). The teeth were divided into four groups based on the irrigation activation technique: control (conventional needle irrigation), SA, UI and XPR. During the final irrigation procedure, Rhodamine B dye was introduced to 5% NaOCl for visualization via CLSM. Subsequent to image acquisition, the maximum penetration, penetration percentage, and penetration area were calculated. Data were statistically analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis, Friedman, and Bonferroni Dunn multiple comparison tests through R software (p < 0.05).ResultsIn the middle third, UI yielded a significantly higher penetration percentage than the control group (p < 0.05). The UI and XPR groups showed increased penetration percentages in the coronal and middle thirds compared with the apical third (P < 0.05). Maximum penetration was notably reduced in the apical third than in comparison with the coronal and middle thirds in all groups (p < 0.05). In the control, SA and XP groups, the penetration area was ranked in descending order as coronal, middle and apical (p < 0.05). Conversely, in the ultrasonic group, the penetration area was significantly lower in the apical third than in the middle and coronal thirds (p < 0.05).ConclusionsUI enhanced the penetration percentage in the middle third of the root compared with that in the control group. XPR and SA showed no significant effect on NaOCl penetration following retreatment.

Impact of LASER activated irrigation on the retrievability of Guttaflow bioseal (in-vitro study)

BackgroundThis study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of diode LASER activated irrigation in the removal of GuttaFlow Bioseal root canal filling material during retreatment.Materials and subjectsRoot canals of forty-five single-rooted human mandibular premolar teeth were prepared with ProTaper Universal rotary system and obturated with lateral condensation obturation technique using Gutta Percha and Roeko GuttaFlow Bioseal root canal sealer. All specimens were retreated with ProTaper Universal Retreatment System files then divided to three different groups according to the technique of activation of irrigation. Samples were sectioned, and the residual filling remnants were captured using digital camera attached to microscope. Data was collected by three different interpreters, to eliminate the subjectivity of the process, using the ImageJ Software. The mean value of the data was obtained and evaluated statistically. The significance level was set at P ≤ 0.05.ResultsThe remaining filling materials in the canals irrigated with ultrasonic activation (6.17 ± 1.42 at coronal level, 10.93 ± 1.91at middle level, and 14.58 ± 2.23 at apical level) were less than these irrigated with LASER activation (15.87 ± 3.78 at coronal level, 21.28 ± 4.44 at middle level, and 27.06 ± 2.68 at apical level). Maximum amount of remaining filling materials was present in the canals irrigated with passive side-vented syringe (23.07 ± 3.22 at coronal level, 38.09 ± 7.27 at middle level, and 34.24 ± 9.77 at apical level).ConclusionThe activation of irrigation techniques used were incapable of complete removal of filling material at root canal walls.

Hydrogeochemical and isotopic investigations of groundwater in the reclaimed desert located between EL Nasr canal and Mariut Tableland, NW Coast, Egypt

A complete understanding of groundwater dynamics and its interaction with surface water under the impact of agricultural activities is vital for local agriculture, ecology, and residents of dry regions, which is not commonly recognized in arid areas. This research outlines the geochemical characteristics, recharge sources, and potential factors impacting groundwater quality in a new land reclamation located in the small basin of Abu Mina, which is part of the Western Nile Delta region.1 Thirty-one groundwater samples and two surface water samples were collected in 2021 to represent the Pleistocene aquifer and were subjected to multivariate statistical, hydrochemical, and stable isotope analyses. Data analysis demonstrates that Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ and SO42– > Cl– > HCO3– > NO3– are the predominant cations and anions, respectively. Groundwater salinity ranged from 465.60 to 6455.18 mg/l, with slightly alkaline. Most of the water samples fall into one of three types of facies: Ca–Cl, Na–Cl, and Mixed Ca–Mg–Cl, in decreasing order. The meteoric genesis index (r2) indicates that deep meteoric water percolation dominates the Pleistocene aquifer. The aquiline diagrams, correlation matrix, and different ionic ratios indicate that evaporation, reverse ion exchange reactions, and the dissolution of carbonate and silicate minerals are the main processes governing groundwater chemistry. Factor analysis (FA) indicated that three factors explain groundwater hydrochemistry, accounting for 71.98% of the total variance. According to the rotating components matrix (F1–F3), the chemistry of the Quaternary aquifer is principally affected by evaporation, ion exchange reactions, and anthropogenic influences. Additionally, salinity increases due to the return flow of irrigation activities and mixing between old and recent water. The stable isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) indicate that the Quaternary aquifer receives groundwater recharge through the return flow of excess irrigation and canal seepage. Under desert reclamation conditions, groundwater salinization processes should be given special consideration. All groundwater samples are appropriate for agricultural irrigation based on the Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Permeability Index (PI), Percent Sodium (%Na), and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC).

The Efficiency of Different Supplementary Irrigation Techniques After Nickel-Titanium Rotary System in Endodontic Retreatment

Objective: To assess the efficiency of XP-Endo Finisher file (XPFF), EDDY, and diode laser as supplementary irrigation activation techniques following nickel-titanium rotary files in the endodontic retreatment. Methods: 48 mandibular premolars were collected. Each root canal was shaped and filled with EndoSequence BC sealer and gutta percha. After 14 days, endodontic retreatment was performed using D-Race instruments. Then, 48 samples were assigned into 4 groups (n=12) as control, diode laser, EDDY, and XPFF according to the supplementary irrigation methods. After the irrigation procedure, all samples were visualized under a stereomicroscope. The remaining root filling material was scored and compared statistically using Kruskal-Wallis and Post-hoc pairwise comparison tests. Results: In all thirds, there was a significant difference between the diode laser and control groups. The amount of remaining filling material in the diode laser group was significantly lower than in the control group. When the other groups were compared, a significant difference was observed only between the diode laser and XPFF groups in the coronal third. Conclusion: No supplemental method could eliminate the root obturation material. The diode laser can be used in addition to nickel-titanium rotary retreatment systems to improve the removal of gutta percha and bioceramic sealer.

Effectiveness of XP-Endo Finisher, Endoactivator, and PUI agitation in the penetration of intracanal medicaments into dentinal tubules: A confocal laser scanning microscope analysis.

This investigation assessed the impact of irrigation activation systems on the depth of penetration of intracanal medicaments into dentinal tubules. Ninety-six mandibular premolar teeth were prepared using ProTaper Next up to size X3. The teeth were randomly divided into four groups based on the final irrigation activation systems (n=24): group 1: EndoActivator, group 2: XP-Endo Finisher, group 3: Passive ultrasonic irrigation (PUI), and group 4: control. After the final irrigation, all the samples were divided into two subgroups (n=12): subgroup A: calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 ) and subgroup B: modified triple antibiotic paste (mTAP). Statistical analysis involved three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). EndoActivator, XP-Endo Finisher, and PUI activation methods significantly increased the penetration of intracanal medicaments compared to conventional needle irrigation (P<0.05). The XP-Endo Finisher group exhibited the highest penetration percentage and maximum penetration depth, showing a statistically significant difference from the EndoActivator group (P<0.001). No significant difference was observed between XP-Endo Finisher and PUI, nor between PUI and EndoActivator (P>0.05). mTAP showed a higher percentage of dentinal tubule penetration than Ca(OH)2, although no significant difference was found in maximum penetration depth. The coronal region demonstrated the highest penetration percentage and depth, while the apical region showed the lowest. This study showed the effectiveness of XP-Endo Finisher in improving the penetration of intracanal medicaments into dentinal tubules. The findings emphasize the importance of selecting appropriate irrigation activation systems to improve treatment outcomes in endodontics. By demonstrating the effectiveness of advanced systems like XP-Endo Finisher, this research supports their integration into routine clinical practice for better endodontic success.

Evaluation of pulp tissue dissolving efficiency of sodium and calcium hypochlorite solutions activated by ultrasonics and laser: an in vitro study

ObjectivesThis study aimed to compare the tissue dissolving capacities of sodium and calcium hypochlorite [NaOCl and Ca(OCl)2] solutions applied without activation or with two irrigant activation methods.Materials and MethodsOne hundred and eight dentin cavities were prepared. Preweighed tissue pieces were placed in these dentin cavities, and samples were divided into nine groups of twelve. In groups 1, 2, and 3, NaOCl was used with non-activation (NA), passive ultrasonic (PUA), and laser activation (LA). With the same techniques, Ca(OCl)2 was used in groups 4, 5, and 6, and distilled water was used in groups 7, 8, and 9. The weight loss of tissue samples was calculated and analyzed using Two-way ANOVA and Duncan tests.ResultsDistilled water groups showed no tissue dissolution in any conditions. NaOCI and Ca(OCI)2 showed statistically similar dissolving effectiveness when used with the same technique. Activated groups dissolved significantly greater tissue than non-activated ones, the highest in LA.ConclusionsCa(OCI)2 can be an alternative to NaOCl; for both, the first choice of activation may be the LA.

Economic Ties of Russian Settlers and Native Population of Turkestan in the end of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th Centuries

The article analyses the issues of reclaiming of Turkestan by the Russian empire in the second half of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th century by means of creating in the region administrative and military structures as well as by organizing Russian migrant settlements. It was revealed that in the process of organization of urban and rural settlements Turkestan authorities took aim at keeping a distance between native and migrant population. The article characterizes the conditions of granting land parcels for Russian settlers, the different categories and the number of countrymen coming to Turkestan. The article demonstrates various forms of economic interaction of settlers and native people in agricultural activities, everyday life, etc. An accent is put on the changes in the organization of living space under the influence of Turkestan climate peculiarities, different methods of managing agricultural food crops and commercial crops (cotton); the issues of irrigational activities, adoption of farm equipment and particular aspects of everyday life are being analyzed. The author makes a note that the interaction mostly took place in the economic and material spheres, and had fragmentary and episodic character that didn’t lead to cardinal changes in the life of Russian settlers’ community and native people.

Responses of summer mesoscale convective systems to irrigation over the North China Plain based on convection-permitting model simulations

Extensive irrigation activities in the North China Plain (NCP) significantly influence regional weather and climate. However, previous studies focusing on the NCP were primarily based on coarse-resolution models, which are unable to explicitly resolve convection systems, causing large uncertainty in precipitation simulations. In this study, a convection-permitting model coupled with a dynamic irrigation scheme is utilized to investigate the impacts of irrigation on summertime mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) over the NCP. Sensitivity experiments with irrigation off and on are conducted for 5 summers and an MCS identification and tracking algorithm is applied to both satellite observations and model simulations. We find that incorporating irrigation in the model increases MCS precipitation, which agrees more with observations. The probability distributions of MCS lifetime, area, propagation speed, and intensity are all better simulated with irrigation. Irrigation increases the occurrence frequency of MCSs throughout the entire day. The nighttime increase is partly because of more frequent local initiation of MCS developed from isolated deep convection, while the daytime increase is mainly attributed to the changes in MCSs initiating elsewhere and then propagating to the NCP. On average, irrigation induces additional moisture that is more thermodynamically favorable for precipitation, but this effect is partially offset by the weakened ascending air motion primarily caused by irrigation surface cooling. Compared to weak MCS precipitation events, strong MCS precipitation events experience greater enhancement in precipitation intensity when including irrigation because the offset effect from the change in large-scale ascending air motion is insignificant. In addition, irrigation makes the variation of MCS precipitation intensity more correlated with the variation in ascending motion but less correlated with that in atmospheric moisture. Our results suggest the pronounced impacts of irrigation on MCSs over the NCP which should be included in numerical models to improve regional precipitation simulation and prediction.

Efficacy of sonic and ultrasonic activation on irrigant penetration in different tapered preparations: An in vitro study

ABSTRACT Background: The traditional syringe needle irrigation method would compromise on cleaning the intricacies of the complex root canal system. Current literature has focused on the benefits of various irrigant activation techniques. The present study aims to evaluate the irrigant penetration in extracted single-rooted teeth using various irrigant activation systems in different tapered preparations. Materials and Methods: One hundred and twenty-four single-rooted teeth were selected for the present study. They were standardized at the level of cementoenamel junction and shaped to 30 size using 4% and 6% taper rotary instruments under a standard irrigation regimen. Once the complete root canal preparations were done based on activation protocols, they were divided into four groups as Group 1: Four percent preparation sonic activation (n = 31), Group 2: Six percent preparation sonic activation (n = 31), Group 3: Four percent preparation ultrasonic activation (n = 31), and Group 4: Six percent preparation ultrasonic activation (n = 31). A radiopaque solution in conjunction with radiography was utilized to evaluate the penetration of irrigants into the canal. Radiographs were taken after dye injection to measure the length of irrigant penetration in each technique. Results were statistically analyzed using SPSS software. One-way ANOVA and Post hoc Tukey tests were performed. Results: The results of the study revealed that ultrasonic activation after 6% taper instrumentation was better followed by ultrasonic activation after 4% taper instrumentation (P &lt; 0.05). The results revealed a statistically significant difference (P &lt; 0.05) between the irrigation techniques. Conclusion: Ultrasonic irrigant activation proved to be a better and an effective technique for cleaning the root canal.

An evidence based letter on fluid mechanics on irrigant activation

An evidence based letter on fluid mechanics on irrigant activation