Irrigated Site Research Articles

Smallholder farmers' participation in small-scale irrigation system: Insight from Lume District, Ethiopia.

Irrigation systems play a crucial role in ensuring food security and mitigating the impacts of drought and water scarcity. Numerous farmers do not possess the technical expertise required for efficient irrigation management. Therefore, this study examined the determinants that affect participation in small-scale irrigation in the Lume District of Ethiopia. Random sampling techniques were used to select four kebeles from a total of thirteen kebeles that have access to small-scale irrigation in the district. Data was gathered from a sample of 176 randomly selected farm households. The households in these kebeles were divided into two groups: the irrigation users and non-users. The overall sample consisted of 121 irrigation users and 55 non-users, accounting for 68.75% and 31.25% of the total sample, respectively. A binary logistic regression model was utilized to pinpoint the factors influencing participation in these irrigation systems. The results revealed that key factors such as the age of the household head, the family size of the household head, land ownership, proximity to irrigation sources, and access to credit significantly influence engagement in small-scale irrigation. The study suggests that policymakers and stakeholders should enhance credit accessibility and improve the distance to irrigation sites to encourage more significant participation in small-scale irrigation systems.

Accumulation of Cd and Pb in soils irrigated with sewage and non-sewage water in Prayagraj, India

Unmanaged agricultural fields and the extended usage of sewage irrigation water can raise the concentration of heavy metals (Cd and Pb) in the soil, turning it into barren soil. The study was conducted during 2022-23 at four sewage and non-sewage irrigated sites in Prayagraj namely Naini, Baxibandh, Rasulabad and Draupadi Ghat. The representative soil samples were taken at depths of 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-60 cm. Di-acid mixture method was used for the estimation of heavy metals (Cd and Pb) in the soil sample by AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer) (AAnalyst600, Perkin Elmer Inc., MA, USA). Contamination factor (CF) and enrichment factor % (EF) of different sites showed various results which fulfill the basic criteria of present and future prospective of research. The highest concentration of Cd and Pb was found in the surface layer (0-15 cm) of sewage and non-sewage irrigated sites at Naini i.e., Cd (4.46±0.42 and 1.05±0.08 mg/kg) and Pb (6.53±0.62 and 1.18±0.12 mg/kg) respectively. The lowest concentration of Cd and Pb was found in the sub-surface layer (45-60 cm) of sewage and non-sewage irrigated sites at Draupadi Ghat i.e., Cd (1.02±0.09 and 0.16±0.01 mg/kg) and Pb (1.68±0.12 and 0.18±0.01 mg/kg) respectively. The concentration of heavy metals cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) declined with soil profile depth in both sewage and non-sewage irrigated soils. The long-term persistence of heavy metal contamination in soil can lead to severe issues; therefore, regular monitoring of sewage-irrigated soils is necessary to minimize heavy metal pollution.

Фотосинтетическая деятельность козлятника восточного при применении стимуляторов роста

In the feed production system of the Lower Volga region, more than 60% of forage crops are located on irrigated lands. Only these lands can be considered a guaranteed source of sustainable food supply. More than 80% of feed from their gross production is harvested from irrigated lands, therefore, studies on the dependence of the feed value of the eastern goat from leafy top dressing are certainly relevant. The aim of the research was to increase the efficiency of cultivation of the Eastern goat in the conditions of the Lower Volga region by improving the use of mineral fertilizers. Experiments to study the dependence of the productivity of goat husk in the form of green mass on treatments with growth stimulants were conducted from 2016 to 2023 on the irrigated site of the Prigorodnoye SEC of the Svetloyarsky district of the Volgograd region on light chestnut soils with irrigation regime 70...85...70 % NV sprinkler machine "Valey". The article presents research materials on the cultivation of Oriental goat on light chestnut soils of the Lower Volga region. The largest area of the leaf surface of the eastern goat in the experiment, on average, over seven years of use, was established in the Jubilee variety on the variant of using the growth stimulator Mival-Agro and was equal to 49.3 thousand m2/ha. The maximum photosynthetic potential of the oriental goat was established in the Jubilee variety on the variant of using the growth stimulator Mival-Agro and was equal to 9.71 million m2 x day/ha. In the Kazbek variety, the net photosynthesis productivity (NPF) ranged from 1.79 g/m2 day in the Megamix-Pro growth stimulator variant to 1.88 g/m2 day in the control variant without the use of growth stimulants. The net photosynthesis productivity of the Krivich variety was 0.10-0.30 g/m2 day more than that of the Kazbek variety, the same, or 0.28 g/m2 day more than that of the Jubilee variety and ranged from 1.89 g/m2 day on the variant of the Megamix-Pro growth stimulator to 1.90 g/m2 a day on the option of using the growth stimulant Mival-Agro and on the option without the use of growth stimulants.

Potentially toxic metals in Northeast Ethiopian agricultural soils: implications for Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) production and human health.

Exposure to heavy metal-contaminated vegetables, irrigation water and agricultural soil is one of the most challenging environmental issues worldwide. This study aimed to evaluate the health effects of potentially toxic metals (PTMs) including Cr, Cd, Fe, Pb, Cu, Zn, and Co from agricultural soil, irrigation water, and tomato plants collected from the Abuarie irrigation site, Northeast Ethiopia. The samples were digested using acid digestion method, and its concentration was quantified using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy. The concentrations of PTMs in the soil, tomato, and irrigation water samples ranged from 49,020 ± 275 (Fe) to 11.85 ± 0.44 (Cd), 170 ± 1.98 (Fe) to 0.29 ± 0.006 (Cd) mgkg-1, and 0.24 ± 0.003 (Fe) to 0.025 ± 0.005(Ni)mgL-1 , respectively. The results revealed Zn, Ni, Cd and Cr in soil, all metals in tomato, and Cu, Ni, Cd and Pb in irrigation water sample were above the World Health Organization threshold values. Moreover, the separate and cumulative exposure to farm soil, irrigation water, and consumption of tomato were investigated using the hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) values, respectively. The results revealed that individual exposure to each sample type did not have a significant impact on health (HQ < 1). However, simultaneous exposure to all of the sample types (soil, tomato and irrigation water) at the same time had a high likelihood of affecting health (HI > 1). The total carcinogenic concentrations of Cr, Cd, Ni, and Pb were greater than 1 × 10-4, revealing that farmers have a high probability of developing cancer during their lifetime. Minimizing simultaneous exposure to soil, tomato, and irrigated water for local people is highly recommended to prevent the risk of PTMs.

Leveraging atmospheric moisture recycling in Saudi Arabia and neighboring countries for irrigation and afforestation planning

Effective irrigation planning is crucial for sustainable agricultural development and ecosystem restoration projects in arid regions. With respect to ambitious greening initiatives, Saudi Arabia is establishing a national strategy toward a more sustainable and eco-friendly future not only for itself but also for the broader Middle East region. Thus, comprehensively understanding the water cycle in the region is essential to identify the most suitable target locations for afforestation and reforestation while considering the potential role of irrigation. Herein, in addition to traditional pedoclimatic factors, we introduce a complementary consideration—“irrigation recycling.” Building on the well-established concept of atmospheric moisture recycling and taking advantage from an atmospheric trajectory dataset, we track the path of evaporated water from current or potential irrigated sites to the location where the evaporated water eventually falls as precipitation. Our analysis offers two key benefits. First, it helps pinpoint the regions in which and the periods during which water recycling is maximum within the country, aiding more precise calculations of the investment return value for irrigation infrastructures. Second, it helps identify the land-use change patterns that contribute to international efforts such as drought mitigation in East Africa as an example. We found that one-third of the actual precipitation in the current Saudi irrigated sites originated from evapotranspiration over land, mainly from Saudi Arabia and surrounding countries. Interestingly, most of the evapotranspiration from these irrigated sites will eventually fall somewhere over land (primarily in Iran). Controlling the seasonality and spatial distribution of the future irrigation expansion will allow controlling the atmospheric moisture recirculation in Saudi Arabia and nearby drought-prone regions such as Eastern Africa. The outcomes of this study will be the subject of future integrated assessments to account for the climatic feedbacks of the land-use change scenarios. At present, they provide crucial insights to support the decision-making process surrounding the Saudi and Middle East Green Initiatives. Further, the presented methodology offers a pragmatic framework that can be applied to similar greening projects for other regions, making it a viable and valuable approach for global sustainability programs.

Assessment of Soil Salinity and Irrigation Water Quality at Tahtay-Adyabo District, Northwestern Tigray, Ethiopia

A study was conducted in Tahtay Adyabo northern Ethiopia to assess the salinity and irrigation water quality at farmer-level irrigation sites in the year of 2012. irrigation sites was identified and sampling units was assigned. 38 soil samples were collected from 19 plots (Dugub, Endaserawat, Mytewldish, Egum dima, and scattered wells in Mentebteb district ) at depths of 0-30cm and 30-50cm, along with, 21 water samples from 14 wells and 7 rivers. These samples were then analyzed at the Shire Soil Laboratory for salinity and fertility parameters. The results showed that the salinity status of surface soil at 0-30cm depth for dugub, scattered wells, and Myteweldish was 75% non-saline and 25% slightly saline. For Endaserawat, 50% was slightly saline, 25% moderately saline, and 25% strongly saline. Egum Dima showed 67% slightly saline and 33% moderately saline. In subsurface soil at 30-50cm depth, dugub, scattered wells, and Myteweldish were 75% non-saline and 25% slightly saline, while Endaserawat was 25% slightly saline and 75% moderately saline, and Egum Dima was 67% slightly saline, 16.5% moderately saline, and 16.5% strongly saline. Water analysis for the wells showed that out of 14 samples, 21% were non-saline, 21% were slightly to moderately saline, and 57% were severely saline. For the rivers, out of 7 samples, 43% were slightly to moderately saline and 57% were severely saline. Overall, out of 21 water samples from wells and rivers, 14% were non-saline, 29% were slightly to moderately saline, and 57% were severely saline. In general, the salinity status in Dugub, Endaserawat, Mytewldish, and Egum Dima varies from non-saline to strongly saline, but the severity is more pronounced in Endaserawat and Egum Dima. This salinity is attributed to the parent material and the water table. Crop selection, integration of organic matter, applying extra irrigation water and regular salinity monitoring is recommended, to optimize the productivity of the soils in the irrigation site.

POST-DESIGN MONITORING OF THE IRRIGATION IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Approaches to conducting post-design monitoring of the impact of irrigation on soil condition are highlighted on the example of an individual agricultural farm of LLC "Granex-Cherkasy". The results of the implementation of the five-year post-design monitoring program under the conditions of irrigation by groundwater using sprinkling and drip methods proved the need to develop both unified general approaches to the formation of monitoring programs, as well as the mandatory consideration of the peculiarities of its management under different irrigation methods and hydrogeological-ameliorative conditions on the irrigation sites. As a basis for the development of a system of post-design monitoring of the impact of irrigation on the state of environmental components, it is proposed to use approaches to the organization and performance of local (on-site) monitoring of irrigated lands based on the requirements of current regulatory and methodological documents. The observation system, based on previous studies, included periodic determination of irrigation water quality indicators in storage ponds or in the places of watering and routine observations of soil conditions at permanent monitoring points (observation points), which are recommended to be taken as coordinate points of the previously conducted testing study (at the stage of the preparation of the environmental impact assessment report). The results of the post-design monitoring proved the ecological admissibility of the impact of irrigation within the farm with the groundwater of I and II quality classes (suitable and limitedly suitable according to individual quality indicators). Based on the results of monitoring, it was established that the soils under irrigation did not undergo significant classification changes in terms of deterioration for 5 years. The lack of manifestations of secondary (irrigation) salinization, sodification, and alkalinization of soils under the influence of irrigation indicates the environmental safety of the latter following the accepted standards for indicators of the degree of development of the specified soil degradation processes.

Heavy Metal Contamination in Soil and Health Risk Assessment through Onion Consumption in Mojo and Koka, Ethiopia

The objective of this study was to determine the concentration of heavy metals in the soil and horticultural crops grown under irrigation in the Mojo and Koka sites in Oromia, Ethiopia, and to evaluate the potential health risks that these metals may cause to consumers. For this investigation, a total of 50 onion (Allium porrum L.) and 50 soil samples were gathered. The content of heavy metals was measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) after the samples were digested using microwave-assisted digestion. The mean concentrations of examined trace elements in onion (mg/kg) were found in the range of 0.80 to 0.95, for As 1.77 to 0.91 for Sn, 2.09 to 1.49 for Pb, 12.29 to 7.31 for B, 13.85 to 12.33 for Zn, 0.34 to 0.25 for Cd, 1.83 to 1.78 for Hg, 11.29 to 7.54 for Cu, 0.83 to 0.78 for Ni, 0.34 to 0.31 for Co, 78.39 to 42.19 for Fe, 17.03 to 11.56 for Mn, and 1.03to 1.02 for Cr. Given that the average levels of Pb, Hg, Cd, and As in onions at both irrigation sites surpassed the upper limit of allowable levels established by the joint FAO/WHO commission. These metals’ concentrations in soil are found to be within acceptable bounds. As compared to other literatures, their concentration exceeded in both irrigation sites. According to the metal pollution load index, the overall pollution load of trace metals, including As, Pb, Cd, and Hg, was found to be moderately higher in both irrigation locations for the majority of the onions under study. The results, which were computed using an adult consumer’s food intake, indicated that the Pb and Hg dietary exposure levels were much higher than the daily intake amounts that were considered tentatively tolerated. The soil-to-onion transfer factor showed that whereas Fe has a strong sorption to the soil colloids, metal Cu is comparatively poorly maintained in the soil. The degree of metal enrichment in soils and sediments is higher than in other literature, according to the soil pollution indices. Thus, swift action is needed to stop the issue and guarantee public safety along the food system’s supply chain.

Bioaccumulation and Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Metals in Citrus Limetta & Citrus Sinensis Irrigated by Wastewater.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of different irrigation sources on the levels of potentially toxic metals (Cd, Cr, Fe and Mn) in the edibles of citrus fruits (Citrus sinensis and Citrus limetta). The samples of fruit, soil and water were collected from two locations (fresh water irrigated-FW I and sewage water irrigated-SW II) within the city of Sargodha. The samples utilized in the study for metal analysis were prepared utilizing the wet acid digestion method. Metal determination was performed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). The potentially toxic metal values in the citrus samples ranged from 0.010 to 0.063, 0.015 to 0.293, 6.691 to 11.342 and 0.366 to 0.667mg/kg for Cd, Cr, Fe and Mn, respectively. Analysis of Citrus limetta and Citrus sinensis indicated that the highest concentration of Cr, Fe and Mn is observed at the sewage water irrigation site (SW-II), whilst the minimum levels of Cr, Fe and Mn were observed at the fresh water irrigation site (FW-I). The results show that the levels of these metals in soil and fruit samples meet the acceptable guidelines outlined by USEPA and WHO. It was found that the metal pollution constitutes a potential threat to human health due to the HRI values for Cd, Cr, and Fe being above 1, despite the DIM values being below 1. Regular monitoring of vegetables irrigated with wastewater is highly recommended in order to minimise health risks to individuals.

Malaria prevalence and associated population and ecological risk factors among women and children under 5 years in Rwanda

BackgroundMalaria continues to pose a substantial public health concern in Rwanda, despite substantial progress in recent years. Little is known about effect of ecological factors and their interaction in malaria transmission. Understanding the prevalence and identifying risk factors, both population-based and ecological such as zooprophylaxis and irrigation are crucial for targeted intervention strategies. MethodsThis study analyzed the 6th iteration of the Demographic and Health Survey conducted in Rwanda between 2019 and 2020. The study employed a nationally representative sample, utilizing rapid diagnostic tests and blood smear microscopy to determine malaria prevalence among women and under 5 years old children. Logistic regression analysis was used in R version 4.3.1 to evaluate population and ecological risk factors that are associated with malaria prevalence. Additionally, interactive effects of ecological factors on malaria were evaluated. ResultsThe analysis revealed a notable malaria prevalence in Rwanda, emphasizing the continued significance of malaria control efforts. Approximately 1.79 % of the population tested positive for malaria. Proximity to irrigation sites and lowland were identified as significant risk factors to malaria with adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.47(1.00–2.15) and AOR 5.44(4.01–8.61) respectively however cattle ownership exhibited a protective effect AOR 0.41(0.23–0.72). Interactive effects of livestock and irrigation on malaria prevalence were revealed. Additionally, population-based risk factors, including age, household wealth, utilization of Insecticide Treated Nets, were associated with varying malaria risks. ConclusionThis study underscores the persistent challenge of malaria in Rwanda and the importance of tailored intervention strategies. To effectively combat malaria, efforts must consider the interplay of ecological factors, such as high cattle density, and demographic factors, targeting high-risk populations, especially those living in proximity to lowlands and irrigation areas. These findings provide critical insights for advancing malaria elimination efforts in Rwanda and serve as a basis for comprehensive public health planning and action.

Effects of heat exposure from late sowing on agronomic traits and the technological quality of hexaploid wheat

Heat stress reduces wheat grain yield and affects quality traits relevant to trading and end use. In this study, 98 landraces and 152 elite hexaploid wheat varieties and breeding lines were trialled at two irrigated field sites in southern NSW to better understand heat stress responses and identify promising genotypes for heat tolerance breeding. Potential heat tolerance was defined using performance in heat-exposed late-sown (LS) plots relative to normal-sown (NS) plots, using a regression approach to calculate response indices uncorrelated with awn emergence time and performance per se in NS. The best individual responders for grain yield included genotypes from both Australia and Mexico. On average, lines selected in CIMMYT's High Temperature Wheat Yield Trials (HTWYT) performed well for yield per se in NS as well as for yield response to LS. CIMMYT lines previously selected for large grains under heat stress conditions performed well for grain size in NS and for LS responses of grain size and test weight. Dough peak resistance and time to peak resistance in a mixograph were increased by LS and these traits were positively correlated with grain protein and the occurrence of the Glu-D1d high molecular weight glutenin locus allele, respectively.

Effect of agriculture on surface water quantity and quality in Gilgel Gibe watershed, southwestern Ethiopia.

Monitoring water quality and quantity is crucial to be sure that water resources are sustainably used. However, there is no monitoring system of water quantity and quality in southwestern Ethiopia, despite expansion of agricultural activities demanding water resources. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of agriculture on water quantity and quality with special emphasis on irrigation in southwestern Ethiopia. Data of water quantity was collected from four rivers and four irrigation canals during dry season of 2023. Physico-chemical water quality data was collected from 35 sites. Water quantity was calculated by estimating the water discharge of the rivers and irrigation canals. Weighted arithmetic water quality index was calculated to assess the status of the studied rivers. Principal component analysis was used to identify the relation of the sites with water quality parameters. This study revealed that the average amount of abstracted water for irrigation from the four studied rivers was 22,399 m3/day during the studied period, and the average percentage of abstracted water was 17%. Sites downstream of the irrigation site were characterized by poor water quality compared with the upstream sites. Sites surrounded by agricultural land use were correlated with chemical oxygen demand, electric conductivity, nitrate, orthophosphate, water temperature, and pH, whereas all sites surrounded by forest were positively correlated with dissolved oxygen. This study indicates that agricultural activities have a negative impact on surface water quality and quantity if not managed properly. Hence, we recommend sustainable use of water resources for the planned irrigation expansion.

Environmental Contamination by Agrochemicals and Its Indiscriminate Use by Dry Season Farmers in Sudan Savannah of Katsina State

A field survey was conducted in five dry season irrigation sites consisting of Ajiwa, Zobe, Jibia, Sabke, and Sulma dams in Katsina state. The survey was carried out to find out dry-season farmers’ attitudes on the use and misuse of agrochemicals. A multi-choice structured questionnaire was administered to one hundred (100) purposively selected dry-season farmers. Data collected were analysed and interpreted using descriptive statistics in the form of bar charts of the SAS package. The result showed that many dry-season farmers obtained information on the safe use of agrochemicals from pesticide retailers (90%). The market recorded the highest (98%) of farmers purchasing agrochemicals. Most dry-season farmers throw away empty pesticide containers after use (91%) while 7% and 4% respectively burn and deep bury these containers. In others, some farmers rewash these containers for household use or resell them to hawkers. Symptoms of pesticide toxicity after application were identified with the highest percentage being recorded by skin rashes (90%). Based on the findings of this study, a poor attitude toward throwing away empty containers could serve as a chance of increased chemical residues in the environment and a high risk of attack especially by the vulnerable people in the study area. It is therefore recommended that dry season farmers be encouraged to purchase agrochemicals from reputable agents to avoid purchasing adulterated or expired chemicals and dispose of empty containers appropriately and hygienically by environmental standards.

Bio-Concentration Factors of Heavy Metals in the Leaf and Root System of Some Selected Vegetables along the Dilimi River in Jos North, Plateau State, Nigeria

This research sought to evaluate the bio-concentration factors of specific heavy metals to facilitate the sustainable management and use of irrigation sites. Sixteen samples of lettuce and spinach were gathered, and each was divided into leaves and roots, placed into a different polythene bag and tagged with the plant's name, part, and stratum. The heavy metals that were analyzed included Lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), and Nickel (Ni). The analysis was done using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). The findings showed that all the metals Cr, Fe, Pb, Ni, Zn, and Cd were within the WHO recommended permissible limit in soils, despite the vegetables having higher Fe concentrations than the recommended limit of 20.00 ppm. The results also showed that the roots and leaves of spinach and lettuce vegetables primarily categorized the heavy metals as having moderate Bio-Concentration Factor (BCF) values, which ranged between 0.1 and 1.0. The results also revealed hyper-accumulation of Ni (1.723) and Cr (1.249) in the leaves of lettuce and spinach. The results also indicate a weak relationship between plants and the heavy metals in the soil. The strongest association (r = -0.512) was found between Ni in the soil and Fe in the vegetables. Farmers along the river should be made aware of the detrimental consequences of their actions.

Heavy metal contamination through wastewater irrigation on the soil and vegetables: Impact on the nutrient content and health risks ​

The use of wastewater irrigation may contribute to the metal accumulation, and reduction of nutrient level of vegetables, which would then have an adverse effect on human health. Therefore, in the present study we investigated heavy metals contamination and its impact on nutrient quality of vegetables and health risk. The study was conducted from the agricultural fields of Varanasi distinct during the period from March 2022 to June 2023 and all the laboratory work was carried in the department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University. Heavy metal concentrations in water, soil, and vegetable samples were measured using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The physiochemical property (pH), daily intake of metal, metal pollution index and health quotient were also calculated according to the published protocols. All heavy metal were found in higher concentrations in the wastewater irrigated soil that control site. The Lohta site had the highest concentration of heavy metals in the vegetables, followed by Dinapur, and least at control site (BHU). The highest concentration of metals (Cu, Zn, and Pb) were found in the leafy vegetables (S. oleracea and A. esculentus) whereas lowest in fruity vegetables (P. vulgaris). The rise in the Metal Pollution Index (MPI) also provided evidence for the greater metal content of these vegetables. The S. oleracea was found to have the highest DIM (0.061 g/g) while P. vulgaris had the lowest (0.007 g/g). HQ values of these metals were found greater than one ( greater than 1) for both children and adults on the ingestion of the vegetables of wastewater irrigated sites. Further, nutrient contents (Na, Mg, Ca) were also declined in the vegetables of wastewater irrigated site when compared to control site. These findings suggest that the consumption of such vegetables leads to compromised health and might be associated with severe health risk in the human.

The Effect of Different Rates of Farm Yard Manure Application on the Growth of Irish Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) Production in Offa District, Southern Ethiopia

Background: The highlands of North America are where the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) first appeared. Potato is the most important vegetable crop. Farm Yard Manure undoubtedly boosts crop output because it contains large amounts of plant-growth-critical nutrients that aren’t always available in appropriate levels in the soil and the investigation is aimed to establish the ideal level of farmyard manure for increasing potato tuber production. Methods: During the 2019-2020 agricultural season, the experiment was conducted in the Offa District W/Dekeya kebele Irrigation site under irrigation and rainfall circumstances for ten months. The experiment was created on the spot using the randomized complete block design. There were three replications and four treatments (0 t/ha-1, 2.5 t/ha-1, 5 t/ha-1 and 7.5 t/ha-1). Result: The data analysis of variance showed that varying FYM nutrient rates had significant effects on potato tuber spread and stem diameter. But the effect of FYM nutrient showed a non-significant difference (P less than 0.05) on plant height, leaf area and number of stems. The longest plant height (45.187 cm), wider leaf area (45.417 cm2) and maximum plant spread (42.317) were recorded by the application of 5 t/ha-1 FYM nutrient-applied plot. Whereas the maximum stem number (3.4333) obtained by control plot and stem diameter (3.667 cm) were obtained by the application of 7.5 t/ha-1 FYM nutrient.

Growth and pulpwood traits of Leucaena leucocephala and Eucalyptus camaldulensis at rainfed and irrigated sites in southern India

Growth and wood traits of Leucaena leucocephala subsp. glabrata were compared with India's most widely grown pulpwood, Eucalyptus. Three Leucaena seedlots and sixty-four Leucaena clones selected in plantations established from two Indian land races and a Hawaiian seed source were tested together with five commercial E. camaldulensis clones at two contrasting sites in southern India. At the wetter, irrigated site, the three sources of Leucaena clones had significantly greater 4-year height and similar mean stem diameter to the Eucalyptus clones, while the Leucaena seedlots were slower-growing. At the semi-arid, rainfed site, Eucalyptus grew faster and had better survival than the three sources of Leucaena clones, which again were similar in their performance and superior to the Leucaena seedlots. Basic densities, determined from breast-height wood cores, of 4-year-old Leucaena and Eucalyptus were quite similar (568 and 534 kg m-3 respectively) at the irrigated site, but at the rainfed site Eucalyptus wood density was higher (590 kg m-3), while that of Leucaena was lower (508 kg m-3). The kraft pulp yield (KPY) of Leucaena clones was about 1.5 % higher than Eucalyptus at both sites; KPYs of both species were 1.8 % lower at the rainfed than the irrigated site. Leucaena fibres were 31 % and 39 % longer and 65 % and 58 % wider than Eucalyptus, at the irrigated and rainfed sites respectively, and had lower cell wall proportions. Differences among Leucaena clones were significant for growth traits and for most wood and fibre traits, indicating the potential for selecting fast-growing Leucaena clones with improved wood properties. Clonal Leucaena plantations can serve as a productive and complementary pulpwood crop to Eucalyptus in southern India, increasing the yield and strength of blended pulps.

Long-term croplands water productivity in response to management and climate in the Western US Corn Belt

Global population growth and water scarcity are raising concerns about agricultural systems' ability to meet future food, fuel, feed, and fiber demands. Water productivity (WP), the ratio of crop production to water use, is crucial for assessing agricultural resilience and sustainability. Yet, research on WP often lacks long-term observational data to understand the impact of management and climate variability. Long-term monitoring of crop yield and water use, using Eddy Covariance technique, allows for accurate assessment of crop performance and their response to climate change in major cropping systems. In this study, we used data collected over a 20-year period (2001–2020) to investigate the interannual variability in yield (Y), crop evapotranspiration (ET), and water productivity (WP, ratio of Y and ET), and their response to management and climate in three major cropping systems located in Eastern Nebraska: irrigated continuous maize, irrigated maize-soybean rotation, and rainfed maize-soybean rotation. Our results showed significant differences (p <0.05) in WP between irrigated and rainfed sites, mainly attributed to variations in Y rather than ET, while there was no significant effect of crop rotation on measured responses. WP was 18.4% higher in irrigated maize in rotation relative to the rainfed site. Water input (mm, sum of precipitation and irrigation) was the main management factor in rainfed maize WP (R=0.67, p = 0.05) and Y (R=0.79, p <0.05). Vapor pressure deficit was negatively correlated with Y in rainfed maize (R=−0.72, p <0.05) and therefore was considered a determinant in WP (R=−0.7, p <0.05). For soybean, soil water content had the highest correlations with Y and WP (irrigated: R=−0.77; rainfed: R=0.49, only significant in irrigated sites). These findings can aid in formulating strategies to enhance water productivity and resilience in the US Corn Belt.

Irrigation contrasts through the morning transition

AbstractThe Land surface Interactions with the Atmosphere over the Iberian Semi‐arid Environment (LIAISE) campaign was conducted in July 2021, primarily to investigate the role of irrigation in modulating the boundary‐layer evolution in the Catalan region of northeastern Spain. Contrasts in near‐surface meteorological parameters and boundary‐layer thermodynamic profiles at an irrigated and rainfed (arid) site were established during the morning transition. Evapotranspriation dominated the flux partitioning at the irrigated site (Bowen ratio of 0.07–1.1), whilst sensible heat flux dominated at the rainfed (arid) site (Bowen ratio greater than 10.0). The cumulative evapotranspiration during July 2021 was a factor of 10 greater at the irrigated site than at the rainfed (arid) site. The presence of irrigation was shown to modulate the vertical gradients of turbulence, temperature, and moisture. Irrigation is shown to have a significant effect on the development of the boundary layer, including during the morning transition. The morning transition mean buoyancy flux was 2.8 times smaller at the irrigated site (1.1 ms) compared with the rainfed (arid) site (3.1 ms), with a resultant delay in the near‐surface buoyancy‐flux crossover time (30–90 min) at the irrigated site. At the start of the morning transition (sunrise), the average screen‐level (50‐m) temperature was K ( K) colder at the irrigated site relative to the rainfed (arid) site. The colder temperatures at sunrise at the irrigated site are predominantly the result of a colder boundary‐layer thermodynamic profile from the previous day. At the end of the morning transition (convective onset), temperature differences between the two sites extend through much of the boundary layer and increase in magnitude. The average screen‐level (50‐m) temperature difference was K ( K) colder at the irrigated site relative to the rainfed (arid) site. There was considerable day‐to‐day variability in temperature contrasts at a regional level ( to K).

Influence of Industrial Wastewater Irrigation on Heavy Metal Content in Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.): Ecological and Health Risk Assessment.

The primary objective of this study was to determine the heavy metal contents in the water-soil-coriander samples in an industrial wastewater irrigated area and to assess the health risks of these metals to consumers. Sampling was done from areas adjoining the Chistian sugar mill district Sargodha and two separate sites irrigated with groundwater (Site 1), and sugar mill effluents (Site 2) were checked for possible metal contamination. The water-soil-coriander continuum was tested for the presence of cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn). The mean concentrations of all metals were higher than the permissible limits for all studied metals except for Mn in the sugar mill wastewater, with Fe (8.861 mg/L) and Zn (9.761 mg/L) exhibiting the highest values. The mean levels of Fe (4.023 mg/kg), Cd (2.101 mg/kg), Cr (2.135 mg/kg), Cu (2.180 mg/kg), and Ni (1.523 mg/kg) were high in the soil at Site 2 in comparison to the groundwater irrigated site where Fe (3.232 mg/kg) and Cd (1.845 mg/kg) manifested high elemental levels. For coriander specimens, only Cd had a higher mean level in both the groundwater (1.245 mg/kg) and the sugar mill wastewater (1.245 mg/kg) irrigated sites. An estimation of the pollution indices yielded a high risk from Cd (health risk index (HRI): 173.2), Zn (HRI: 7.012), Mn (HRI: 6.276), Fe (HRI: 1.709), Cu (HRI: 1.282), and Ni (HRI: 1.009), as all values are above 1.0 indicating a hazard to human health from consuming coriander irrigated with wastewater. Regular monitoring of vegetables irrigated with wastewater is strongly advised to reduce health hazards to people.