Irreducible Noise Research Articles

Gravity gradient noise from asteroids

The gravitational coupling of nearby massive bodies to test masses in a gravitational wave (GW) detector cannot be shielded, and gives rise to 'gravity gradient noise' (GGN) in the detector. In this paper we show that for any GW detector using local test masses in the Inner Solar System, the GGN from the motion of the field of $\sim 10^5$ Inner Solar System asteroids presents an irreducible noise floor for the detection of GW that rises exponentially at low frequencies. This severely limits prospects for GW detection using local test masses for frequencies $f_{\text{GW}} \lesssim (\text{few})\times 10^{-7}\,$Hz. At higher frequencies, we find that the asteroid GGN falls rapidly enough that detection may be possible; however, the incompleteness of existing asteroid catalogs with regard to small bodies makes this an open question around $f_{\text{GW}}\sim \mu$Hz, and further study is warranted. We show that a detector network placed in the Outer Solar System would not be overwhelmed by this noise above $\sim 10\,$nHz, and make comments on alternative approaches that could overcome the limitations of local test masses for GW detection in the $\sim 10\,$nHz-$\mu$Hz band.

Proposal for gravitational direct detection of dark matter

The only coupling dark matter is guaranteed to have with the standard model is through gravity. Here we propose a concept for direct dark matter detection using only this gravitational coupling. We suggest that an array of quantum-limited mechanical impulse sensors may be capable of detecting the correlated gravitational force created by a passing dark matter particle. We consider the effects of irreducible noise from couplings of the sensors to the environment and noise due to the quantum measurement process. We show that the signal from Planck-scale dark matter is in principle detectable using a large number of gram-scale sensors in a meter-scale array with sufficiently low quantum noise, and discuss some experimental challenges en route to achieving this target.

Using the yield curve to forecast economic growth

AbstractThis paper finds the yield curve to have a well‐performing ability to forecast the real gross domestic product growth in the USA, compared to professional forecasters and time series models. Past studies have different arguments concerning growth lags, structural breaks, and ultimately the ability of the yield curve to forecast economic growth. This paper finds such results to be dependent on the estimation and forecasting techniques employed. By allowing various interest rates to act as explanatory variables and various window sizes for the out‐of‐sample forecasts, significant forecasts from many window sizes can be found. These seemingly good forecasts may face issues, including persistent forecasting errors. However, by using statistical learning algorithms, such issues can be cured to some extent. The overall result suggests, by scientifically deciding the window sizes, interest rate data, and learning algorithms, many outperforming forecasts can be produced for all lags from one quarter to 3 years, although some may be worse than the others due to the irreducible noise of the data.

The Role of the Striatum in Learning to Orthogonalize Action and Valence: A Combined PET and 7T MRI Aging Study.

Pavlovian biases influence instrumental learning by coupling reward seeking with action invigoration and punishment avoidance with action suppression. Using a probabilistic go/no-go task designed to orthogonalize action (go/no-go) and valence (reward/punishment), recent studies have shown that the interaction between the two is dependent on the striatum and its key neuromodulator dopamine. Using this task, we sought to identify how structural and neuromodulatory age-related differences in the striatum may influence Pavlovian biases and instrumental learning in 25 young and 31 older adults. Computational modeling revealed a significant age-related reduction in reward and punishment sensitivity and marked (albeit not significant) reduction in learning rate and lapse rate (irreducible noise). Voxel-based morphometry analysis using 7Tesla MRI images showed that individual differences in learning rate in older adults were related to the volume of the caudate nucleus. In contrast, dopamine synthesis capacity in the dorsal striatum, assessed using [18F]-DOPA positron emission tomography in 22 of these older adults, was not associated with learning performance and did not moderate the relationship between caudate volume and learning rate. This multiparametric approach suggests that age-related differences in striatal volume may influence learning proficiency in old age.

Spectral and Thermal Properties of Rhodopsins: Closely Related but not Tightly Coupled

Rhodopsins, the primary molecules of vision in all seeing animals, can be activated not only by photon energy (light) but also by thermal energy (heat). Spectral absorbance is evolutionarily tuned by critical residues in the amino acid sequence of the protein part (opsin), which affect the energy needed for 11-cis → all-trans isomerization of the covalently bound chromophore. Already in the 1940’s it was suggested that high sensitivity to long-wavelength light, being indicative of a low energy barrier for activation, should correlate with high probability for thermal activation, and that randomly occurring thermal activations would constitute an irreducible noise setting absolute constraints for the detection of weak light signals. This idea has received strong experimental as well as theoretical support over the last 40 years. Most of the experimental evidence comes from physiological studies of light responses and dark noise in the light-sensitive current of vertebrate photoreceptor cells. Here I review this work, which has firmly established the correlation of spectral sensitivity and thermal noise and led to new theoretical insights. On the other hand, there remains significant freedom for independent adjustment of the two variables by tinkering with the opsin. This is a question of fundamental evolutionary as well as practical interest.

Wavelength-decoupled geometric metasurfaces by arbitrary dispersion control

Conventional multicolor metaholograms suffer from the fundamental limitations of low resolution and irreducible noise because the unit structure functionality is still confined to a single wavelength. Here, we propose wavelength-decoupled metasurfaces that enables to control chromatic phase responses independently in a full range from 0 to 2π for each wavelength. The propagation phase associated with the geometric phase of rectangular dielectric nanostructures plays a critical role to embed a dual phase response into a single nanostructure. A multicolor metahologram is also demonstrated to verify the feasibility of our method that breaks through the fundamental constraints of conventional multicolor metaholograms. Our approach can be extended to achieve complete control of chromatic phase responses in the visible for general dual-wavelength diffractive optical elements.

De–Black Boxing Media

Reading Avital Ronell’s unconventionally designed The Telephone Book implies reading material form as well as semantic content. Such a reading emphasizes the book’s typographical illegibilities, which become the figure for the space between person and thing. These illegibilities manifest as unreadable noise, interventions on the print page that produce a technological feminine. Situated alongside ANT (actor-network theory), media theory, and cyborg feminism, the technological feminine gestures at the limits of these attempts to de–black box media, insisting on an irreducible noise or static in communication.

WE‐H‐207A‐09: Theoretical Limits to Molecular Biomarker Detection Using Magnetic Nanoparticles

Purpose:Estimate the limits of molecular biomarker detection using magnetic nanoparticle methods like in vivo ELISA.Methods:Magnetic nanoparticles in an alternating magnetic field produce a magnetization that can be detected at exceedingly low levels because the signal at the harmonic frequencies is uniquely produced by the nanoparticles. Because the magnetization can also be used to characterize the nanoparticle rotational freedom, the bound state can be found. If the nanoparticles are coated with molecules that bind the desired biomarker, the rotational freedom reflects the biomarker concentration. The irreducible noise limit is the thermal noise or Johnson noise of the tissue and the contrast that can be measured must be larger than that limit. The contrast produced is a function of the applied field and depends strongly on nanoparticle volume. We have estimated the contrast using a Langevin function of a single composite variable to approximate the full stochastic Langevin equation for nanoparticle dynamics.Results:The thermal noise for a bandwidth reasonable for spectroscopy suggests mid zeptomolar (10–21) to low attomolar (10–18) concentrations can be measured in a volume that is 10cm in scale. The suggested sensitivity is far below the physiologically concentrations of almost all critical biomarkers including cytokines (picomolar), hormones (nanomolar) and heat shock proteins.Conclusion:The sensitivity of in vivo ELISA concentration measurements should be sufficient to measure physiological concentrations of critical biomarkers like cytokines in vivo. Further the sensitivity should be sufficient to measure concentrations of other biomarkers that are six to eight orders of magnitude lower in concentration than immune signaling molecules like cytokines.NIH ‐ 1U54CA151662‐01Department of Radiology

A Probabilistic Analysis of Muscle Force Uncertainty for Control.

We control the movements of our body and limbs through our muscles. However, the forces produced by our muscles depend unpredictably on the commands sent to them. This uncertainty has two sources: irreducible noise in the motor system's processes (i.e., motor noise) and variability in the relationship between muscle commands and muscle outputs (i.e., model uncertainty). Any controller, neural or artificial, benefits from estimating these uncertainties when choosing commands. To examine these benefits, we used an experimental preparation of the rat hindlimb to electrically stimulate muscles and measure the resulting isometric forces. We compare a functional electric stimulation (FES) controller that represents and compensates for uncertainty in muscle forces with a standard FES controller that neglects uncertainty. Accounting for uncertainty substantially increased the precision of force control. Our study demonstrates the theoretical and practical benefits of representing muscle uncertainty when computing muscle commands. The findings are relevant beyond FES as they highlight the benefits of estimating statistical properties of muscles for both artificial controllers and the nervous system.

Focusing in Arthurs-Kelly-Type Joint Measurements with Correlated Probes

Joint approximate measurement schemes of position and momentum provide us with a means of inferring pieces of complementary information if we allow for the irreducible noise required by quantum theory. One such scheme is given by the Arthurs-Kelly model, where information about a system is extracted via indirect probe measurements, assuming separable uncorrelated probes. Here, following DiLorenzo [Phys. Rev. Lett. 110, 120403 (2013)], we extend this model to both entangled and classically correlated probes, achieving full generality. We show that correlated probes can produce more precise joint measurement outcomes than the same probes can achieve if applied alone to realize a position or momentum measurement. This phenomenon of focusing may be useful where one tries to optimize measurements with limited physical resources. Contrary to DiLorenzo's claim, we find that there are no violations of Heisenberg's error-disturbance relation in these generalized Arthurs-Kelly models. This is simply due to the fact that, as we show, the measured observable of the system under consideration is covariant under phase space translations and as such is known to obey a tight joint measurement error relation.

Ultra-fast charge exchange spectroscopy for turbulent ion temperature fluctuation measurements on the DIII-D tokamak (invited)

A novel two-channel, high throughput, high efficiency spectrometer system has been developed to measure impurity ion temperature and toroidal velocity fluctuations associated with long-wavelength turbulence and other plasma instabilities. The spectrometer observes the emission of the n = 8-7 hydrogenic transition of C(+5) ions (λ(air) = 529.06 nm) resulting from charge exchange reactions between deuterium heating beams and intrinsic carbon. Novel features include a large, prism-coupled high-dispersion, volume-phase-holographic transmission grating and high-quantum efficiency, high-gain, low-noise avalanche photodiode detectors that sample emission at 1 MHz. This new diagnostic offers an order-of-magnitude increase in sensitivity compared to earlier ion thermal turbulence measurements. Increased sensitivity is crucial for obtaining enough photon statistics from plasmas with much less impurity content. The irreducible noise floor set by photon statistics sets the ultimate sensitivity to plasma fluctuations. Based on the measured photon flux levels for the entire spectral line, photon noise levels for T̃(i)/T(i) and Ṽ(i)/V(i) of ~1% are expected, while statistical averaging over long data records enables reduction in the detectable plasma fluctuation levels to values less than that. Broadband ion temperature fluctuations are observed to near 200 kHz in an L-mode discharge. Cross-correlation with the local beam emission spectroscopy measurements demonstrates a strong coupling of the density and temperature fields, and enables the cross-phase measurements between density and ion temperature fluctuations.

Beyond Poisson: Increased Spike-Time Regularity across Primate Parietal Cortex

Cortical areas differ in their patterns of connectivity, cellular composition, and functional architecture. Spike trains, on the other hand, are commonly assumed to follow similarly irregular dynamics across neocortex. We examined spike-time statistics in four parietal areas using a method that accounts for nonstationarities in firing rate. We found that, whereas neurons in visual areas fire irregularly, many cells in association and motor-like parietal regions show increasingly regular spike trains by comparison. Regularity was evident both in the shape of interspike interval distributions and in spike-count variability across trials. Thus, Poisson-like randomness is not a universal feature of neocortex. Rather, many parietal cells have reduced trial-to-trial variability in spike counts that could provide for more reliable firing-rate signals. These results suggest that spiking dynamics may play different roles in different cortical areas and should not be assumed to arise from fundamentally irreducible noise sources.

Neural diversity creates a rich repertoire of brain activity

Despite investigations dating back to the 19th century, the functional role of different cell types in the brain remains largely unknown. Using realistic computer simulations, we have recently shown that neural diversity can generate patterns of complex activity that were traditionally interpreted as irreducible noise. Such complex activity may directly contribute to both cognitive and behavioral outcomes, including motor control, perception, and memory.

Imaging the cosmic matter distribution using gravitational lensing of pre-galactic H i

21-cm emission from neutral hydrogen during and before the epoch of cosmic reionization is gravitationally lensed by material at all lower redshifts. Low-frequency radio observations of this emission can be used to reconstruct the projected mass distribution of foreground material, both light and dark. We compare the potential imaging capabilities of such 21-cm lensing with those of future galaxy lensing surveys. We use the Millennium Simulation to simulate large-area maps of the lensing convergence with the noise, resolution and redshift-weighting achievable with a variety of idealized observation programmes. We find that the signal-to-noise ratio of 21-cm lens maps can far exceed that of any map made using galaxy lensing. If the irreducible noise limit can be reached with a sufficiently large radio telescope, the projected convergence map provides a high-fidelity image of the true matter distribution, allowing the dark matter haloes of individual galaxies to be viewed directly, and giving a wealth of statistical and morphological information about the relative distributions of mass and light. For instrumental designs like that planned for the Square Kilometre Array, high-fidelity mass imaging may be possible near the resolution limit of the core array of the telescope.

Noise and Cooling in Electronics Packages

The noise produced by cooling air passing through electronics packages arises from two sources. One source is the noise of the air-moving fan of either an axial or centrifugal type. This noise may have both tonal and random components and is strongly dependent on the way that the fan is placed in the unit and on where its operation is on the fan's operating curve. Often, fans are the dominant noise sources. The flow of air produces random noise due to the turbulence generated throughout the unit. Because the turbulent airflow is also responsible for heat transfer between the components and the air stream, we can regard this part of the noise as the irreducible noise due to cooling. If fan noise were eliminated, this part of the noise would remain. There is a relation, therefore, between the irreducible noise and the cooling of the unit. But the fan noise must also be considered. The relation between total airflow related noise and cooling requirements is developed in this paper for the irreducible noise

Prospects for Redshifted 21 cm Observations of Quasar HiiRegions

The introduction of low-frequency radio arrays over the coming decade is expected to revolutionize the study of the reionization epoch. Observation of the contrast in redshifted 21 cm emission between a large H II region and the surrounding neutral IGM will be the simplest and most easily interpreted signature. We assess the sensitivity of three generations of planned low-frequency arrays to quasar-generated H II regions. We find that an instrument such as the planned Mileura Widefield Array Low Frequency Demonstrator (LFD) will be able to obtain good signal-to-noise ratios on H II regions around the most luminous quasars and determine some gross geometric properties, e.g., whether the H II region is spherical or conical. A hypothetical follow-up instrument with 10 times the collecting area of the LFD (MWA-5000) will be capable of mapping the detailed geometry of H II regions, while the Square Kilometer Array (SKA) will be capable of detecting very narrow spectral features, as well as the sharpness of the H II region boundary. The SKA will most likely be limited by irreducible noise from fluctuations in the IGM itself. The MWA-5000 (and even the LFD under favorable circumstances) will discover serendipitous H II regions in wide-field observations. We estimate the number of H II regions that are expected to be generated by quasars based on the observed number counts of quasars at z ~ 6. Assuming a late reionization at z ~ 6, we find that there should be several tens of quasar H II regions larger than 4 Mpc at z ~ 6-8 per field of view. Identification of H II regions in forthcoming 21 cm surveys can guide a search for bright galaxies in the middle of these regions. Most of the discovered galaxies would be the massive hosts of dormant quasars that left behind fossil H II cavities that persisted long after the quasar emission ended, owing to the long recombination time of intergalactic hydrogen. A snapshot survey of candidate H II regions selected in redshifted 21 cm image cubes may prove to be the most efficient method for finding very high redshift quasars and galaxies.

Efficiency of information transmission by retinal ganglion cells.

Different types of retinal ganglion cells convey different messages to the brain. Messages are in the form of spike patterns, and the number of possible patterns per second sets the coding capacity. We asked if different ganglion cell types make equally efficient use of their coding capacity or whether efficiency depends on the message conveyed. We recorded spike trains from retinal ganglion cells in an in vitro preparation of the guinea pig retina. By calculating, for the observed spike rate, the number of possible spike patterns per second, we calculated coding capacity, and by counting the actual number of patterns, we estimated information rate. Cells with "brisk" responses, i.e., high firing rates, and a general message transmitted information at high rates (21 +/- 9 bits s(-1)). Cells with "sluggish" responses, i.e., lower firing rates, and specific messages (direction of motion, local-edge) transmitted information at lower rates (13 +/- 7 bits s(-1)). Yet, for every type of ganglion cell examined, the information rate was about one-third of coding capacity. For every ganglion cell, information rate was very close (within 4%) to that predicted from Poisson noise and the cell's actual time-modulated rate. Different messages are transmitted with similar efficiency. Efficiency is limited by temporal correlations, but correlations may be essential to improve decoding in the presence of irreducible noise.

The noise-cooling tradeoff in electronic equipment

The noise produced by cooling air passing through electronics packages arises from two sources. One source is the noise of the air-moving fan of either an axial or centrifugal type. This noise may have tonal components and both those components and the broad band noise are dependent on the way that the fan is placed in the unit and on how close the operation is to the design operating point. Often, this can be the dominant noise source. The other source produces random noise due to the turbulent flow of air through the unit. Because the turbulent airflow is also responsible for heat transfer between the components and the air stream, we can regard this part of the noise as the irreducible noise due to cooling. If fan noise were eliminated, this part of the noise must remain. There is a relation therefore between the irreducible noise and the cooling of the unit. But the fan noise must also be considered. The relation between total airflow related noise and cooling requirements is developed in this paper.

The frequency of isomerization‐like ‘dark’ events in rhodopsin and porphyropsin rods of the bull‐frog retina.

1. The dark current and responses to dim flashes were recorded with the suction pipette technique from single rods in pieces of bull-frog retina taken from either the dorsal porphyropsin or the ventral rhodopsin field. 2. The composition of visual pigment in the rods was determined by microspectrophotometry. Rods from the dorsal pieces contained 70-88% porphyropsin523 mixed with rhodopsin502. The ventral rods contained almost pure rhodopsin, any possible admixture of porphyropsin being below the level of detectability (less than 5%). 3. In most cells, the responses to dim flashes were well fitted by a four-stage linear filter model, with no systematic differences in the response kinetics of porphyropsin and rhodopsin rods. The amplitude of saturated responses varied between 8 and 55 pA and that of responses to single isomerizations between 0.4 and 3.5 pA. 4. In porphyropsin rods, discrete events similar to the response to one photoisomerization were clearly seen in complete darkness. The dark current amplitude histogram was fitted by a convolution of the probability densities for the Gaussian continuous noise component and the averaged dim-flash response waveform. This allows estimation of the frequency and amplitude of discrete events and the standard deviation of the continuous component. The mean frequency of discrete dark events thus obtained from six porphyropsin cells was 0.057 rod-1 s-1 at 18 degrees C. 5. In rhodopsin rods, the dark current amplitude histogram appeared completely symmetrical, indicating that the frequency of discrete events must be lower than 0.005 rod-1 s-1 (except in one rod where it was 0.006 events rod-1 s-1). Per molecule of rhodopsin, the events are then at least 5 times rarer than reported for toad rhodopsin rods at the same temperature. 6. The low rate of isomerization-like 'dark' events in bull-frog rhodopsin rods shows, firstly, that results cannot be generalized across species even for rhodopsins which appear spectrally identical. Secondly, it suggests that these events need not (in an evolutionary sense) constitute an irreducible noise factor which must set the ultimate limit to the sensitivity of dark-adapted vision. 7. The difference between porphyropsin and rhodopsin rods shows that, given (presumably) the same opsin, the pigment utilizing retinal2 and absorbing maximally at longer wavelengths produces more noise. The signal/noise ratio attained in the photoreceptor may be an important factor in the natural selection of visual pigments.

The influence of noisy components on the sensitivity of microwave receivers

The ultimate limit on receiver sensitivity is random noise. In the microwave region where atmospheric and man-made noise are negligible, this elemental random noise comes from thermal agitation and from electron devices. It can be shown that the irreducible minimum noise level is proportional to the effective system bandwidth.